Threonate Compounds and Methods of Use Thereof

ABSTRACT

Provided herein is a method of using threonate to alter cellular physiology, such as neuronal physiology. A method of the present disclosure may include providing to a medium comprising a cell, a threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, to increase the concentration of threonate in the medium, where the increased concentration of threonate is sufficient to increase the concentration of magnesium in the cell. Also provided is a method that includes administering a threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, to an individual, to increase synaptic density in the brain and/or to treat a neurological disorder, e.g., cognitive impairment. The threonate-containing compound of the present disclosure does not include magnesium threonate.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit pursuant to 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) toU.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/217,360, filed Sep. 11, 2015,and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/346,267, filed Jun. 6,2016, which applications are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety.

BACKGROUND

Cognitive decline is correlated with brain atrophy associated withsynaptic loss. For instance, alteration of synaptic efficacy in thehippocampus is an initial event in cognitive disorders such asAlzheimer's disease (AD). As synapses are the elemental unit of neuralcomputation, the structural and functional loss of synapses areassociated with impaired cognition.

Neuronal intracellular ionized Mg²⁺ is an important signaling moleculeregulating structural and functional synaptic terminal density, withhigher intracellular concentration ([Mg²⁺]₁) generally resulting ingreater structural and functional synaptic terminal density. Not onlydoes neuronal intracellular Mg²⁺ promote structural synapse density andplasticity (Slutsky et al., (2010). Neuron 65(2): 165-177), but it alsocontrols whether presynaptic terminals are functional or nonfunctional(Zhou and Liu (2015). Mol Brain 8(1): 42). Functional synapses are ableto release neurotransmitters via synaptic vesicles and thus affect thepost-synaptic neuron, while nonfunctional synapses are structurallypresent but fail to release neurotransmitters and are unable to signalto the post-synaptic neuron.

SUMMARY

Methods of using threonate (L-threonate) to alter cellular physiology,such as neuronal physiology, are provided. A method of the presentdisclosure may include providing to a medium comprising a cell, athreonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, to increase theconcentration of threonate in the medium, where the increasedconcentration of threonate is sufficient to increase the concentrationof magnesium in the cell. Also provided is a method that includesadministering a threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof,to an individual, to increase synaptic density in the brain and/or totreat a neurological disorder, e.g., cognitive impairment. Thethreonate-containing compound of the present disclosure does not includemagnesium threonate.

Provided herein is a method for increasing brain synaptic density of anindividual by administering to an individual a first dosage formcontaining a therapeutically effective amount of a threonate-containingcompound, or a precursor thereof, to increase synaptic density in one ormore regions of the brain of the individual, where thethreonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, is not a magnesiumsalt.

In any embodiment, the threonate-containing compound, or precursorthereof, may be a monovalent, divalent or trivalent cation salt, orprecursor thereof, of threonate. In some embodiments, the monovalent,divalent or trivalent cation is selected from the group consisting of:H⁺, Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, NH₄ ⁺, C₁-C₈ monoalkylammonium, C₂-C₈dialkylammonium, C₃-C₈ trialkylammonium, and Fe^(3+/2+).

In any embodiment, the administering may include administering the firstdosage form orally, intravenously, or transcutaneously.

In any embodiment, the method may further include co-administering asecond dosage form comprising magnesium with the first dosage form.

In any embodiment, the one or more regions of the brain may include thehippocampus, cortex, amygdala, and/or the basal ganglion.

In any embodiment, the first dosage form includes one or more additionalagents selected from a pharmacological agent, a flavoring agent, acoloring agent, a sweetening agent, a filling agent, a binding agent, alubricating agent, an excipient, and a preservative.

Also provided herein is a method of increasing intracellular magnesiumconcentration, the method including: providing to a medium containing acell, a threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, toincrease the concentration of threonate in the medium, wherein theincreased concentration of threonate is sufficient to increase theconcentration of magnesium in the cell compared to the concentration ofmagnesium in the cell before the providing, wherein thethreonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, is not a magnesiumsalt. In some embodiments, the cell is in vitro, and wherein theproviding includes contacting the cell with a composition containing thethreonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof. In someembodiments, the cell is in vivo, and wherein the providing includesadministering to an individual, a composition containing thethreonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, in an amountsufficient to increase the concentration of threonate in anextracellular medium of a cell in the individual. In some embodiments,the concentration of extracellular magnesium in the medium is in therange of 0.3 mM to 2.0 mM. In some embodiments, the concentration ofthreonate in the medium is 75 μM or more.

Also provided herein is a method of increasing intracellular magnesiumconcentration, the method including contacting a cell with an effectiveamount of a glucose transporter (GluT) activator to increase anintracellular magnesium concentration of the cell. In some embodiments,the cell is in vitro. In some embodiments, the contacting includesadministering to an individual an effective amount of the GluT activatorto increase an intracellular magnesium concentration of the cell invivo.

In any embodiment, the concentration of magnesium in the cell may beincreased by 5% or more.

In any embodiment, the cell may be a cell that expresses a glucosetransporter.

In any embodiment, the cell may be a neuronal cell. In some embodiments,the neuronal cell is a central nervous system neuron. In someembodiments, the neuron is a hippocampal or cortical neuron.

Also provided herein is a method of treating a neurological disorder inan individual, the method including: administering to an individual inneed of treatment for a neurological disorder, a first dosage formcontaining a therapeutically effective amount of a threonate-containingcompound, or a precursor thereof, to ameliorate the neurologicaldisorder, wherein the threonate-containing compound, or precursorthereof, is not a magnesium salt. In some embodiments, the neurologicaldisorder is caused by insufficient synaptic density and/or insufficientneuron number in one or more brain regions of the individual. In someembodiments, the neurological disorder includes Alzheimer's disease,mild cognitive impairment (MCI), or dementia, Huntingdon's disease,autism, schizophrenia, cognitive decline as secondary effect of diseaseor medical treatment, depression, dementia, sleep disorder, anxiety,attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), migraine, headache,stroke, and neuropathy. In some embodiments, the administering includesadministering the first dosage form orally, intravenously, ortranscutaneously.

In any embodiment, the method further includes co-administering one ormore additional agents with the threonate-containing compound, orprecursor thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more additionalagents includes one or more of a nutritional active material, atherapeutically active agent, and a locally active agent.

Also provided herein is a kit including: a therapeutic compositioncontaining a therapeutically effective amount of a threonate-containingcompound, or a precursor thereof, wherein the threonate-containingcompound, or precursor thereof, is not a magnesium salt; and a packagingfor holding the therapeutic composition. In some embodiments, the kitfurther includes a supplemental composition containing magnesium.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The skilled artisan will understand that the drawings, described below,are for illustration purposes only. The drawings are not intended tolimit the scope of the present teachings in any way.

FIGS. 1A-1D are a collection of graphs and schematic diagrams showingelevation of brain threonate by L-threonic acid magnesium salt (TAMS),according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 2A-2F are a collection of graphs and images showing that raisingextracellular threonate concentration promotes elevation of [Mg²⁺]_(i),according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 3A-3D are a collection of graphs and images showing enhancement ofsynaptic density and upregulation of NR2B-containing NMDAR by threonate,according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 4A-4F are a collection of graphs and images showing that threonateenhances mitochondrial membrane potential and increases functionalpresynaptic terminal density, according to embodiments of the presentdisclosure.

FIGS. 5A-5D are a collection of graphs and images comparing the effectsof various anions on [Mg²⁺]_(i) and functional synaptic density,according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 6A-6E are a collection of graphs and images showing that glucosetransporters (GLUTs) mediate threonate-induced synaptic changes andincrease of functional synapse density, according to embodiments of thepresent disclosure.

FIGS. 7Aa-7C are a collection of graphs and images showing thatelevating threonate increased expression of Syn and PSD-95 in humanneurons, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8 is a collection of chemical structures representing sodiumL-threonate and other compounds.

DEFINITIONS

An “individual” as used herein, may be any suitable animal amenable tothe methods and techniques described herein, where in some cases, theindividual may be a vertebrate animal, including a mammal, bird,reptile, amphibian, etc. The individual may be any suitable mammal,e.g., human, non-human primate, monkey, rodent, canine, feline,ungulate, etc. In some cases, the individual is a patient, e.g., anindividual in need of treatment for a disease. In some cases, theindividual is a human.

“Medium”, as used herein, may refer to any aqueous solution that isphysiologically compatible with a cell that contacts the solution. Wherea cell is maintained in vitro, e.g., in culture or a tissue slice, themedium may be any suitable culture medium or buffer solution. Where acell is in vivo, e.g., in an individual, the medium may be anyextracellular fluid (e.g., interstitial fluids, blood plasma or serum,cerebrospinal fluid, etc.), that surrounds or contacts the cell in atissue.

Generally, the term “cognition” may refer to a process of obtaining,organizing, understanding, processing, and/or using information orknowledge, performed using an individual's mental faculties. Generally,enhancing cognitive function refers to enhancing any aspect of such aprocess, such as learning, the performance of mental operations, thestorage, retrieval, and/or use of information and/or thoughts, memory,and/or preventing a decline of a subjects cognitive state, for example.Various standardized tests may be used to evaluate cognition, cognitivefunction, and/or cognitive state and may be used to identify a subjectwho might be conducive to, benefit from, and/or need, maintenance and/orenhancement of same and/or to monitor an effect of treatment relating tosame. Examples of suitable tests include the Mini-Mental Status Exam(Folstein, 1975), components of the PROSPER neuropsychological testbattery (Houx, 2002), and/or the like. Family history, age, and/or otherfactors may also be used to identify a subject who might be conduciveto, benefit from, and/or need, maintenance and/or enhancement ofcognition, cognitive function, and/or cognitive state.

As used herein, the terms “treat,” “treatment,” “treating,” and thelike, refer to obtaining a desired pharmacologic and/or physiologiceffect. The effect may be prophylactic in terms of completely orpartially preventing a health condition, disease or symptoms thereofand/or may be therapeutic in terms of a partial or complete cure for ahealth condition, disease and/or adverse effect attributable to thehealth condition or disease. “Treatment,” as used herein, covers anytreatment of a health condition or disease in a mammal, particularly ina human, and includes: (a) preventing the health condition or diseasefrom occurring in a subject which may be predisposed to the healthcondition or disease but has not yet been diagnosed as having it; (b)inhibiting the health condition or disease, i.e., arresting itsdevelopment; and (c) relieving the health condition or disease, e.g.,causing regression of the disease, e.g., to completely or partiallyremove symptoms of the health condition or disease.

A “therapeutically effective amount” or “efficacious amount” means theamount of an agent that, when administered to a cell, a tissue, a mammalor other individual for obtaining a desired change in a physiologicalparameter, e.g., for treating a disease, is sufficient to effect suchdesired change, e.g., treatment for the disease or condition. The“therapeutically effective amount” will vary depending on agent, thedisease or condition and its severity and the age, weight, etc., of thesubject to be treated.

By “pharmaceutically acceptable” is meant a material that is notbiologically or otherwise undesirable, i.e., the material may beincorporated into a pharmaceutical composition administered to anindividual without causing any undesirable biological effects orinteracting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components ofthe composition in which it is contained. When the term“pharmaceutically acceptable” is used to refer to a pharmaceuticalcarrier or excipient, it is implied that the carrier or excipient hasmet the required standards of toxicological and manufacturing testing orthat it is included on the Inactive Ingredient Guide prepared by theU.S. Food and Drug administration.

“Co-administer”, as used herein, may refer to administering two or moretherapeutic agents to an individual to treat a disease. The two or moretherapeutic agents may be administered with dosage schedules that areindependent of one another (e.g., at different frequencies or intervalsof administration). In some cases, two or more therapeutic agents may beadministered at the same time, and in some cases, two or moretherapeutic agents may be administered at different times (e.g., onebefore another, in alternating sequence, etc.).

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this disclosure belongs. Although any methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also beused in the practice or testing of the present teachings, some exemplarymethods and materials are described herein.

Before the various embodiments are described, it is to be understoodthat the teachings of this disclosure are not limited to the particularembodiments described, and as such can, of course, vary. It is also tobe understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescribing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to belimiting, since the scope of the present teachings will be described bythe appended claims.

The section headings used herein are for organizational purposes onlyand are not to be construed as limiting the subject matter described inany way. While the present teachings are described in conjunction withvarious embodiments, it is not intended that the present teachings belimited to such embodiments. On the contrary, the present teachingsencompass various alternatives, modifications, and equivalents, as willbe appreciated by those of skill in the art.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that eachintervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unlessthe context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lowerlimit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in thatstated range is encompassed within the present disclosure.

The citation of any publication is for its disclosure prior to thefiling date and should not be construed as an admission that the presentclaims are not entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of priorinvention. Further, the dates of publication provided can be differentfrom the actual publication dates which can need to be independentlyconfirmed.

It must be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, thesingular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless thecontext clearly dictates otherwise. It is further noted that the claimscan be drafted to exclude any optional element. As such, this statementis intended to serve as antecedent basis for use of such exclusiveterminology as “solely,” “only” and the like in connection with therecitation of claim elements, or use of a “negative” limitation.

As will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading thisdisclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustratedherein has discrete components and features which can be readilyseparated from or combined with the features of any of the other severalembodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the presentteachings. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of eventsrecited or in any other order which is logically possible.

One with skill in the art will appreciate that the present embodimentsare not limited in application to the details of construction, thearrangements of components, category selections, weightings,pre-determined signal limits, or the steps set forth in the descriptionor drawings herein. The present teachings are capable of including otherembodiments and of being practiced or being carried out in manydifferent ways.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As summarized above, disclosed herein are uses of threonate-containingcompounds, other than magnesium threonate, to alter cellular physiology,such as neuronal physiology. In general terms, a method of the presentdisclosure may include providing to a medium comprising a cell, in vivoor in vitro, a threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, toincrease the concentration of threonate in the medium. The increase inthreonate concentration in the medium may be sufficient (e.g.,sufficient concentration of threonate and for a sufficient duration) tobring about a desirable physiological change in the contacted cell. Insome cases, the physiological change is an increase in intracellularmagnesium concentration. In some cases, the increase in intracellularmagnesium concentration underlies one or more other desirablephysiological changes in the cell. In some cases, where the cell is aneuronal cell, the physiological change is an increase in the density ofsynapses, e.g., functional synapses. The present threonate-containingcompounds may also be used to treat and/or ameliorate a neurologicaldisorder, such as cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease, whichare associated with a loss of synaptic density in neurons.

Without wishing to be bound to theory, it is believed thatadministration of theronate to an individual in a manner that increasesthe extracellular concentration of theronate in extracellular fluids oftissues, such as in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), promotes the uptakeof magnesium by cells, e.g., neurons, exposed to the increasedextracellular theronate. An increase in the intracellular magnesiumconcentration as a result of the enhanced uptake of magnesium induced bytheronate may contribute to functional changes in the cells and/or theindividual, such as an increase in synaptic density in neurons and/ortreatment of a neurological disorder, e.g., cognitive impairment.

Further aspects of the present disclosure are now described.

Threonate

Threonate, as used herein, may refer to(2R,3S)-2,3,4-trihydroxybutanoate (L-threonate), represented by formula(I):

A threonate precursor may include a molecule that can be readilyconverted to threonate, as a result of ionization, oxidation, reduction,or hydrolysis, etc., with or without the aid of an enzyme, when thecomposition is dissolved in an aqueous medium or administered to anindividual. A suitable threonate precursor may include, withoutlimitation, threonic acid, an ester derivative of threonic acid orthreonate (e.g., where one or more hydroxyl groups and/or the carboxylicacid group forms an ester), a lactonized threonic acid (e.g., threonicacid-1,4-lactone), ascorbic acid or a salt thereof, or a derivativethereof, etc.

In some embodiments, the threonate-containing compound is a monovalent,divalent or trivalent cation salt of threonate, represented by theformula (II):

where Z^(n+) is a cation and n is an integer selected from 1, 2 or 3.The cation, Z^(n+), may be any suitable cation for use in the methods ofthe present disclosure, with the proviso that the Z^(n+) is not Mg²⁺.Thus, the threonate-containing compound of the present disclosure is nota magnesium salt. Suitable cations include, but are not limited to,e.g., H⁺, Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, NH₄₊, C₁-C₈ monoalkylammonium, C₂-C₈dialkylammonium, C₃-C₈ trialkylammonium, and Fe³⁺²⁺, etc. In someembodiments, Z^(n+) is Na⁺. In some embodiments, where the Z^(n+) is adi- or trivalent cation, the anions necessary to balance the charge ofZ^(n+) may include a mixture of threonate and another pharmaceuticallyacceptable anion. By way of example and without limitation, a suitablecompound of the invention may be calcium threonate chloride (i.e.,Ca[Cl(threonate)]).

As used herein, the term “alkyl” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent refers to a saturated branched or straight-chain monovalenthydrocarbon radical derived by the removal of one hydrogen atom from asingle carbon atom of a parent alkane. Typical alkyl groups include, butare not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl such as propan-1-yl orpropan-2-yl, and butyl such as butan-1-yl, butan-2-yl,2-methyl-propan-1-yl (iso-butyl) or 2-methyl-propan-2-yl (tert-butyl).In some embodiments, an alkyl group contains from 1 to 8 carbon atoms.In other embodiments, an alkyl group contains from 1 to 6 carbon atoms,such as from 1 to 4 carbon atoms.

The threonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, of the presentdisclosure may be used in any suitable composition, formulation ordosage form (e.g., dietary supplement, pharmaceutical composition,etc.), as described further below, for use in a method of the presentdisclosure described herein. Any composition, formulation or dosage form(e.g., dietary supplement, pharmaceutical composition, etc.) containingthe present threonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, may notinclude magnesium threonate, or a magnesium-containing precursorthereof. Thus, in cases where a composition, formulation or dosage form(e.g., dietary supplement, pharmaceutical composition, etc.) contains athreonate-containing compound (or a precursor thereof) and amagnesium-containing compound (or a magnesium-containing precursorthereof), the threonate-containing compound (or precursor thereof) andthe magnesium-containing compound (or magnesium-containing precursorthereof) may be provided in a manner sufficient to prevent formation ofmagnesium threonate, or a magnesium-containing precursor thereof in thecomposition, formulation or dosage form. In some cases, thethreonate-containing compound (or precursor thereof) and themagnesium-containing compound (or magnesium-containing precursorthereof) may be physically isolated from each other within thecomposition by e.g., being in different compartments, such as layers,that are physically isolated from each other; either one or bothcompounds being coated with a suitable coating, etc.

Methods Method of Increasing Intracellular Magnesium Concentration

Provided herein is a method of increasing the intracellularconcentration of magnesium by increasing the concentration of threonatein a medium containing a cell. The method may include providing to amedium containing a cell, a threonate-containing compound, or aprecursor thereof, to increase the concentration of threonate in themedium, where the increased concentration of threonate is sufficient toincrease the concentration of magnesium in the cell compared to theconcentration of magnesium in the cell before the providing, or comparedto the concentration of magnesium in a control cell that has not beenprovided the threonate-containing compound in a control mediumcontaining the control cell. The threonate-containing compound may beany suitable compound, or a precursor thereof, as described above, withthe proviso that the threonate-containing compound is not a magnesiumsalt.

The medium containing the cell may be any medium that is physiologicallycompatible with the cell, and may depend on whether the cell of interestis in vitro, e.g., primary cells or cell lines (in, for example, atissue culture flask, a vial, a tube, a mutli-well plate, in a tissueslice, etc.), or in vivo, e.g., cells within a tissue of an individual.The medium may be a suitable culture medium, buffer solution, orextracellular fluid (e.g., interstitial fluids, blood plasma or serum,cerebrospinal fluid, etc.). In embodiments, the present medium includesan amount of magnesium, i.e., extracellular magnesium. “Extracellularmagnesium”, as used herein, may refer to magnesium that is functionallyrelevant to the transport of magnesium, from the outside to the insideof the cell. Thus the concentration of extracellular magnesium may be aneffective concentration of extracellular magnesium for cellularmagnesium influx. The concentration of extracellular magnesium in themedium may be any suitable amount greater than 0.1 mM. In some cases,the concentration of magnesium in the medium is 0.3 mM or more, e.g.,0.4 mM or more, 0.5 mM or more, 0.6 mM or more, 0.7 mM or more, 0.8 mMor more, 0.9 mM or more, 1.0 mM or more, 1.1 mM or more, including 1.2mM or more, and in some cases may be 5.0 mM or less, e.g., 4.0 mM orless, 3.0 mM or less, 2.0 mM or less, 1.5 mM or less, 1.2 mM or less,1.0 mM or less, 0.8 mM or less, including 0.7 mM or less. In someembodiments, the concentration of extracellular magnesium in the mediumis in the range of 0.3 mM to 5.0 mM, e.g., 0.3 mM to 2.0 mM, 0.4 mM to1.5 mM, 0.4 mM to 1.2 mM, 0.4 mM to 1.0 mM, including 0.4 mM to 0.8 mM.

The threonate-containing compound may be provided to the medium usingany convenient method, and may depend on whether the cell of interest isin vitro, e.g., primary cells or cell lines (in, for example, a tissueculture flask, a vial, a tube, a mutli-well plate, in a tissue slice,etc.), or in vivo, e.g., cells within a tissue of an individual. In somecases, a composition containing the threonate-containing compound iscontacted with the cell in vitro or added to a medium containing thecell. In some cases, a composition containing the threonate-containingcompound is administered to an individual, to increase the concentrationof threonate in an extracellular medium of a cell in the individual, asdescribed further below.

The concentration of threonate in the medium may be raised to anysuitable concentration sufficient to increase concentration of magnesiumin the cell. In some embodiments, the concentration of threonate israised to 75 μM or more, e.g., 80 μM or more, 85 μM or more, 90 μM ormore, 95 μM or more, 100 μM or more, 150 μM or more, including 200 μM ormore, and in some cases, to 1,000 μM or less, e.g., 500 μM or less, 300μM or less, 250 μM or less, including 200 μM or less. In someembodiments, the concentration of threonate is raised to a concentrationin the range of 75 μM to 1,000 μM, e.g., 80 μM to 500 μM, 85 μM to 500μM, 90 μM to 300 μM, including 100 μM to 200 μM.

Where the threonate concentration in a medium containing a cell isincreased in vitro, the cell may be present in the medium with increasedthreonate concentration for any suitable length of time sufficient toincrease concentration of magnesium in the cell. In some cases, the cellis contacted with the medium with increased threonate concentration for30 min or more, e.g., 60 min or more, 3 hrs or more, 6 hrs or more, 12hrs or more, 24 hrs or more, including 36 hours or more, and in somecases, for 1 year or less, e.g., 6 months or less, 3 months or less, 1month or less, 2 weeks or less, 1 week or less, 5 days or less, 3 daysor less, including 1 day or less. In some embodiments, the cell iscontacted with the medium with increased threonate concentration for atime period in the range of 30 min to 1 year, e.g., 30 min to 6 months,60 min to 3 months, 60 min to 1 month, 60 min to 1 week, 60 min to 5days, including 60 min to 3 days.

Where the threonate concentration in a medium containing a cell isincreased in vivo, a composition containing the threonate-containingcompound, or precursor thereof, may be administered to an individualwith a dosing schedule of any suitable duration sufficient to increasethe magnesium concentration in the cell. In some embodiments, thecomposition is administered to an individual with a dosing schedule of 1month or more, e.g., 2 months or more, 3 months or more, 4 months ormore, 5 months or more, 6 months or more, 12 months or more, 2 years ormore, 5 years or more, including 10 years or more, and in someembodiments, for 50 years or less, e.g., 25 years or less, 10 years orless, 5 years or less, 1 year or less, including 9 months or less. Insome embodiments, the composition is administered to an individual witha dosing schedule in the range of 1 month to 9 months, 3 months to 9months, 3 months to 1 year, 6 months to 1 year, 12 months to 5 years, 2years to 5 years, 5 years to 10 years, or 10 years to 50 years. Thecomposition containing the threonate-containing compound may beadministered to the individual using any suitable dosage form, dosageregimen or administration route, as described below.

Also provided herein is a method of increasing an intracellularconcentration of magnesium of a cell by administering an effectiveamount of a glucose transporter (GluT) activator to a cell, to increasean intracellular magnesium concentration of the cell. The activator maybe any suitable molecule (e.g., small molecule compound; biomolecule,such as a protein, polypeptide, monosaccharide, polysaccharide, nucleicacid, etc.). In some cases, the activator is an agent that increases theintracellular magnesium concentration of the cell in a manner that issensitive to an inhibitor of a GluT, such as cytochalasin B (CB). Inother words, the increase in intracellular magnesium concentrationinduced by the activator can be inhibited by an amount of inhibitor ofGluT, such as CB, that is sufficient to inhibit glucose transport by theGluT. The Glucose transporters of interest include, without limitation,GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, GLUT4, GLUT5, GLUT6, GLUT7, GLUT8, GLUT9, GLUT10,GLUT11, GLUT12, and GLUT13 (corresponding to the Gene ID numbers in,e.g., human of: 6513, 6514, 6515, 6517, 6518, 1182, 155184, 29988,56606, 81031, 66035, 154091, and 114134, respectively). In some cases,the activator increases the activity of the GluT by 5% or more, e.g.,10% or more, 20% or more, 30% or more, 40% or more, 50% or more, 60% ormore, 70% or more, 80% or more, 90% or more, including 100% or more, andin some cases, by 100% or less, e.g., 90% or less, 80% or less, 70% orless, 60% or less, 50% or less, 40% or less, 30% or less, 20% or less,including 10% or less. In some cases, the activator increases theactivity of the GluT by from 5% to 10%, from 10% to 20%, from 20% to30%, from 30% to 40%, from 40% to 50%, from 50% to 60%, from 60% to 70%,from 70% to 80%, from 80% to 90%, or from 90% to 100%.

A cell of the present methods may be any suitable cell, and may be anycell that expresses a glucose transporter (GLUT). The “expression” of aprotein, as used herein, may be defined by ascribing at least part of afunctional property of the cell to proper expression of the geneencoding the protein (e.g., by pharmacological manipulation, knockdownof expression using inhibitory RNAs, genetic knockouts, etc.) or mayrefer to detecting the presence of an expression product (e.g., mRNAencoding the protein, via in situ hybridization, reverse transcriptasepolymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), mRNA sequencing, etc.; or theprotein itself, via Western blotting, labeling with detectableantibodies, etc.) in the cell at a level above a threshold level (suchas a background level). Glucose transporters of interest include,without limitation, GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, GLUT4, GLUT5, GLUT6, GLUT7,GLUT8, GLUT9, GLUT10, GLUT11, GLUT12, and GLUT13 (corresponding to theGene ID numbers in, e.g., human of: 6513, 6514, 6515, 6517, 6518, 1182,155184, 29988, 56606, 81031, 66035, 154091, and 114134, respectively)where the cell expressing the glucose transporter is a mammalian cell.In some embodiments, the cell expresses a glucose transporter selectedfrom GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, GLUT4, GLUT6, GLUT8, GLUT10, GLUT13, andcombinations thereof. In some cases, the cell expresses GLUT3.

The cells may be somatic cells, stem cells (e.g., embryonic stem cells,adulst stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)), or cellsdifferentiated from stem cells. In some cases, the cell is, or isderived from, a fibroblast, an oligodendrocyte, a glial cell, ahematopoietic cell, a leukocyte, a neuron, a muscle cell, a bone cell, ahepatocyte, a pancreatic cell, an epithelial cell, a renal cell, anembryonic cell. The cells may be from established cell lines or they maybe primary cells, where “primary cells”, “primary cell lines”, and“primary cultures” are used interchangeably herein to refer to cells andcell cultures that have been derived from an individual and allowed togrow in vitro for a limited number of passages, i.e. splittings, of theculture. For example, primary cultures are cultures that may have beenpassaged 0 times, 1 time, 2 times, 4 times, 5 times, 10 times, or 15times, after isolating from an in vivo source, but not enough times togo through the crisis stage. Typically, the primary cell lines aremaintained for fewer than 10 passages in vitro. If the cells are primarycells, they may be harvested from an individual by any convenientmethod. For example, leukocytes may be conveniently harvested byapheresis, leukocytapheresis, density gradient separation, etc., whilecells from tissues such as skin, muscle, bone marrow, spleen, liver,pancreas, lung, intestine, stomach, etc. can be conveniently harvestedby biopsy. In some cases the cells are derived from fetal tissue, e.g.,fetal brain tissue, including fetal cortical tissue. In some cases, thecells are derived from stem cells obtained from fetal tissue, e.g.,fetal brain tissue, including fetal cortical tissue.

Any suitable cell line may be used in methods of the present disclosure.Cell lines of interest include, without limitation, human embryonickidney (HEK) cells, Hela cells, PC12, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells,COS cells, etc.

The cell may be in suspension or be attached to a solid support, e.g., awall of a tissue culture flask. The cell may be isolated, or may be partof an aggregate of cells, e.g., part of an embryo, a tissue, etc.

In some embodiments, the cell is a neuron. The neuron may be anysuitable neuron. In some cases, the neuron is a central nervous system(CNS) neuron, e.g., a neuron of the brain, spinal cord, retina,olfactory epithelium, etc. In some embodiments the neuron is, or derivedfrom, a neuron of the hippocampus, cortex, thalamus (including thecentral thalamus), sensory cortex, ventral tegmental area (VTA),prefontal cortex (PFC), nucleus accumbens (NAc), amygdala, substantianigra, ventral pallidum, globus pallidus, dorsal striatum, ventralstriatum, subthalamic nucleus, dentate gyrus, cingulate gyrus,entorhinal cortex, olfactory cortex, primary motor cortex, and/orcerebellum.

In some embodiments, the cell is a neuronal cell derived from a neuronalstem cell, e.g., a fetal neuronal stem cell. A stem cell may bedifferentiated into a neuronal cell culturing the stem cell in anysuitable differentiation protocol. In some cases, the stem cell iscultured in a neural induction medium to promote differentiation into aneuronal cell. The neural induction medium may include an effectiveamount of one or more SMAD signaling pathway inhibitors, such as Nogginand SB431542, to promote differentiation into neuronal cells.

The concentration of magnesium in a cell may be increased by the presentmethods by 5% or more, e.g., 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25%or more, 30% or more, 40% or more, including 50% or more, and in somecases, by a factor of 75% or less, e.g., 65% or less, 60% or less, 50%or less, including 50% or less, compared to the concentration ofmagnesium in the cell before providing the threonate-containing compoundto the cell, or compared to the concentration of magnesium in anappropriate control cell. In some cases, the control cell has not beenprovided the threonate-containing compound in a control mediumcontaining the control cell, where the control medium is otherwisecomparable to the medium of the cell provided with thethreonate-containing compound. In some embodiments, the concentration ofmagnesium in a cell is increased by the present method by 5% to 75%,e.g., 10% to 65%, 20% to 60%, including 25% to 50%, compared to theconcentration of magnesium in the cell before providing thethreonate-containing compound to the cell, or compared to theconcentration of magnesium in an appropriate control cell, as describedabove. The intracellular magnesium concentration may be measured using asuitable method, such as by using a fluorescent magnesium indicator dye(e.g., Magnesium Green™ from Invitrogen) to determine the intracellularmagnesium concentration, e.g., by optical estimate, fluorescencedetector, etc.

The increase in intracellular magnesium concentration induced by, e.g.,contacting, in vitro or in vivo, the cell with a threonate-containingcompound, or a precursor thereof, or with a GluT activator, may resultin a physiological change in the cell. Where the cell is a neuron, thepresent method of providing a threonate-containing compound, or aprecursor thereof, to the neuron may increase the density of synapses inneurites of the neuron, increase the expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate(NMDA) receptor subunits in the neuron, and/or increase mitochondrialfunction in the neuron.

In some embodiments, the present methods may increase the density ofsynapses in the neuron by 5% or more, e.g., 10% or more, 15% or more,20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 35% or more, including 40% ormore, and in some cases, by 75% or less, e.g., 60% or less, 55% or less,50% or less, 45% or less, including 40% or less, compared to anappropriate control, e.g., the density of synapses in the neuron beforethe threonate-containing compound or the GluT activator is administered,or the density of synapses in a control neuron in a control medium towhich the threonate-containing compound or the GluT activator has notbeen provided. In some embodiments, the present methods may increase thedensity of synapses in a region of the brain by from 5% to 75%, e.g.,from 10% to 60%, from 10% to 55%, from 15% to 50%, including 20% to 50%,compared to an appropriate control. The density of puncta may bemeasured, e.g., by measuring the number of fluorescent puncta inprocesses of neurons across a unit area of neuronal processes, where theneurons are immunostained with one or more antibodies to synapticproteins (e.g., synaptophysin and/or PSD-95), or are geneticallymodified to express a detectably labeled (e.g., fluorescently tagged)synaptic protein.

In some cases, the present methods may increase the expression of aN-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit involved in synapticplasticity, e.g., expression of NR2B, in the neuron, by 10% or more,e.g., by 20% or more, by 30% or more, by 40% or more, by 50% or more, by60% or more, including by 70% or more, and in some cases, by 100% orless, e.g., by 90% or less, by 80% or less, by 70% or less, by 60% orless, including by 50% or less, compared to an appropriate control,e.g., the expression level of the NMDA receptor subunit in the neuronbefore the threonate-containing compound or the GluT activator isadministered, or the expression level of the NMDA receptor subunit in acontrol neuron in a control medium to which the threonate-containingcompound or the GluT activator has not been provided. In someembodiments, the present methods may increase the expression of a NMDAreceptor in a region of the brain by from 10% to 100%, e.g., by from 20%to 90%, by from 30% to 80%, including by from 40% to 70%, compared to anappropriate control. The expression level of a NMDA receptor in a regionof the brain may be measured, e.g., by performing a Western blot withhomogenates of the brain region and probing for the NMDA receptorsubunit using an antibody specific to the subunit.

In some embodiments, the present methods may increase mitochondrialfunction in neurons of a brain region by 10% or more, e.g., 20% or more,30% or more, 40% or more, 50% or more, 60% or more, including 70% ormore, and in some cases, by 100% or less, e.g., 90% or less, 80% orless, 70% or less, 60% or less, including 50% or less, compared to anappropriate control, e.g., the mitochondrial function in the neuronbefore the threonate-containing compound or the GluT activator isadministered, or the mitochondrial function in a control neuron in acontrol medium to which the threonate-containing compound or the GluTactivator has not been provided. In some embodiments, the presentmethods may increase mitochondrial function in neurons of a brain regionby from 10% to 100%, e.g., from 20% to 90%, from 30% to 80%, includingfrom 40% to 70%, compared to an appropriate control. Mitochondrialfunction in neurons of a region of the brain may be measured, e.g., bymeasuring the number of mitochondria in the cell, or by measuringaggregation of JC-1 to estimate ΔΨ_(m).

Method of Increasing Brain Synaptic Density or Treating a NeurologicalDisorder Associated with Synapse Loss

Also provided herein is a method of increasing the synaptic density inneuronal tissue of an individual, e.g., an individual suffering fromhaving insufficient synaptic density. The method may includeadministering a dosage form containing an effective amount of athreonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, to increasesynaptic density in one or more regions of the brain of the individual,e.g., compared to the density of synapses in the brain regions beforethe administering. The threonate-containing compound may be any suitablecompound or a precursor thereof, as described above, with the provisothat the threonate-containing compound is not a magnesium salt.

Also provided herein is a method of treating (e.g., ameliorating, orpreventing or slowing further progression of) a neurological disorderassociated with synapse loss, e.g., cognitive impairment, byadministering a dosage form containing threonate to an individual inneed of a treatment for the neurological disorder, e.g., cognitiveimpairment. The threonate-containing compound may be any suitablecompound or a precursor thereof, as described above, with the provisothat the threonate-containing compound is not a magnesium salt. Thedosage form may include threonate in any suitable therapeutic amount toameliorate the neurological disorder, e.g., cognitive impairment, whenadministered to the individual.

Neurological disorders that may be treated by administering threonatemay be an impairment caused by insufficient synaptic density, reducedsynaptic function, and/or insufficient neuron number in a brain regionof the individual. The brain region may include, without limitation, thehippocampus, cortex, thalamus (including the central thalamus), sensorycortex, ventral tegmental area (VTA), prefontal cortex (PFC), nucleusaccumbens (NAc), amygdala, substantia nigra, ventral pallidum, globuspallidus, dorsal striatum, ventral striatum, subthalamic nucleus,dentate gyrus, cingulate gyrus, entorhinal cortex, olfactory cortex,primary motor cortex, and/or cerebellum. The neurological disorder mayinclude neuropsychiatric and/or neurodegenerative disorders.Neurological disorders that may be treated according to the presentmethods include, without limitation, mild cognitive impairment (MCI),Alzheimer's disease, Huntingdon's disease, autism, schizophrenia,cognitive decline as secondary effect of disease or medical treatment(HIV disease, cancer, chemotherapy), depression, dementia, sleepdisorder, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),migraine, headache, stroke, neuropathy, etc.

The individual may be any suitable animal, e.g., a mammal, such as ahuman, non-human primate, feline, canine, etc. In some cases, the animalis not a rodent, e.g., is not a mouse or a rat. In some cases, theindividual is a geriatric individual (e.g., an individual who has livedfor 70% or more, e.g., 75% or more, 80% or more, 85% or more, 90% ormore, 95% or more, including 98% or more of the average lifeexpectancy). In some cases, the individual is a geriatric human (e.g.,an individual who is 65 years old or older, e.g., 70 years old or older,75 years old or older, 80 years old or older, 85 years old or older, 90years old or older, including 95 years old or older.

The dosage form may be administered using any suitable route ofadministration for the dosage form. In some cases, the administrationmay be oral and/or any other suitable administration, such astranscutaneous, transdermal, intravenous, intramuscular, subdermal, etc.Thus, dosage forms of interest include oral and parenteral dosage forms.

The dosage form may be in any suitable formulation for administering thethreonate-containing compound to the individual. Suitable dosage formsinclude, without limitation, a liquid form, a gel form, a semi-liquid(for example, a liquid, such as a viscous liquid, containing some solid)form, a semi-solid (a solid containing some liquid) form, and/or a solidform, for example. Merely by way of example, a tablet form, a capsuleform, a food form, a chewable form, a non-chewable form, a slow- orsustained-release form, a non-slow- or non-sustained-release from (e.g.,immediate release form), and/or the like, may be employed.Gradual-release tablets are known in the art. Examples of such tabletsare set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 3,456,049, incorporated herein byreference. The dosage form may take the form of a food form, e.g., afood bar, a cereal product, a bakery product, a dairy product, and/orthe like. The dosage form may take the form of a bakery form, e.g., abread-type product, such as a bagel or bread itself, for example, adonut, a muffin, and/or the like.

The present threonate-containing compound, when provided in a liquidform may be used in any suitable manner. In some embodiments, thethreonate-containing dosage form may be used as a beverage, such as amilk-based beverage, a sports drink, a fruit juice drink, an alcoholicbeverage, and/or the like. In other embodiments, thethreonate-containing dosage form in liquid form contains multiplethreonate-containing compounds or precursors thereof. In suchembodiments, the weight percentage of each threonate-containing compoundmay vary in relation to the other. In still other embodiments, thethreonate-containing dosage form in a liquid form may include water, anda threonate-containing compound, and optionally, at least one agent,such as magnesium-containing compound, sufficient to confer a suitableproperty to the product. In still another embodiment, athreonate-containing dosage form in a liquid form may be formulated froma dry mix, such as a dry beverage mix or a magnesium-fortified,milk-comprising powder. A dry mix may be suitable in terms oftransportation, storage, and/or shelf life. The composition may beformulated from the dry mix in any suitable manner, such as by adding asuitable liquid (e.g., water, milk, fruit juice, alcohol, etc.).

The amount of threonate-containing compound in the dosage form may vary,and may depend on, e.g., the threonate-containing compound, theadministration route, the formulation, the administration regimen, thedesired outcome, etc. In some embodiments, the threonate component ofthe threonate-containing compound in a solid oral dosage form (e.g., apill, tablet, capsule, or like device) is present at 10 mg or more,e.g., 15 mg or more, 20 mg or more, 50 mg or more, 100 mg or more, 200mg or more, 300 mg or more, 400 mg or more, including 500 mg or more,and in some embodiments, at 1 g or less, e.g., 800 mg or less, 600 mg orless, 400 mg or less, 300 mg or less, 200 mg or less, including 100 mgor less. In some embodiments, the threonate component of thethreonate-containing compound in a solid oral dosage form is present ata range of 10 mg to 1 g, e.g., 15 mg to 800 mg, 15 mg to 600 mg, 20 mgto 300 mg, 20 mg to 200 mg, including 200 mg to 100 mg.

In some embodiments, a liquid dosage form of the threonate-containingcompound may be formulated to administer the threonate component of thecompound at a dose of 10 mg/kg/day or more, e.g., 15 mg/kg/day or more,20 mg/kg/day or more, 30 mg/kg/day or more, 40 mg/kg/day or more, 50mg/kg/day or more, 100 mg/kg/day or more, including 500 mg/kg/day ormore, and in some embodiments at a dose of 1,000 mg/kg/day or less,e.g., 500 mg/kg/day or less, 300 mg/kg/day or less, 150 mg/kg/day orless, 100 mg/kg/day or less, including 80 mg/kg/day or less. In somecases, the liquid dosage form of the threonate-containing compound maybe formulated to administer the threonate component of the compound at adose of from 10 mg/kg/day to 1,000 mg/kg/day, e.g., from 10 mg/kg/day to500 mg/kg/day, from 15 mg/kg/day to 300 mg/kg/day, from 15 mg/kg/day to150 mg/kg/day, including from 20 mg/kg/day to 100 mg/kg/day.

The administration may be performed using any suitable regimen. In someembodiments, a dose of the theronate-containing compound is provided tothe individual over the course of one or more administrations, e.g., twoadministrations or more, three administrations or more, 4administrations or more, 5 administrations or more, 6 administrations ormore, 8 administrations or more, 10 administrations or more, 15administrations or more, 25 administrations or more, 30 administrationsor more, including 50 administrations or more, and in some cases overthe course of 1,000 administrations or fewer, e.g., 500 administrationsor fewer, 250 administrations or fewer, 100 administrations or fewer, 50administrations or fewer, 25 administrations or fewer, including 5administrations or fewer. In some cases, the dose of thetheronate-containing compound is provided to the individual over a rangeof 1 to 5 administrations, 5 to 25 administrations, 25 to 50administrations, or 50 to 1,000 administrations. In some cases, theadministration is self-administration.

In some cases, the dosage form containing the threonate-containingcompound is administered to the individual over a time period of 1 monthor more, e.g., 2 months or more, 3 months or more, 4 months or more, 5months or more, 6 months or more, 12 months or more, 2 years or more, 5years or more, including 10 years or more, and in some embodiments, atime period of 50 years or less, e.g., 25 years or less, 10 years orless, 5 years or less, 1 year or less, including 9 months or less. Insome embodiments, the dosage form containing the threonate-containingcompound is administered to the individual over a time period in therange of 1 month to 9 months, 3 months to 9 months, 3 months to 1 year,6 months to 1 year, 12 months to 5 years, 2 years to 5 years, 5 years to10 years, or 10 years to 50 years.

The dosage form containing the threonate-containing compound may beadministered at any suitable time interval. In some cases, the dosageform containing the threonate-containing compound is administered to theindividual yearly or more frequently, e.g., monthly or more frequently,weekly or more frequently, daily or more frequently, including hourly ormore frequently.

The effective amount of the threonate-containing compound, or aprecursor thereof, may be any amount that is sufficient to increase theconcentration of threonate in an extracellular medium of the neuronaltissue, e.g., the CSF, relative to the concentration of threonate in theextracellular medium of the neuronal tissue before the administering,for a given administration method. In some embodiments, the threonateconcentration in the extracellular medium of the neuronal tissue mayincrease by 10% or more, e.g., 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more,30% or more, 35% or more, 40% or more, 45% or more, including 50% ormore, and in some embodiments, by a factor of 100% or less, e.g., 90% orless, 80% or less, 70% or less, 60% or less, including 50% or less,compared to the concentration of threonate in the extracellular mediumof the neuronal tissue before the administering. In some cases, thethreonate concentration in the extracellular medium of the neuronaltissue may increase by from 10% to 100%, e.g., from 15% to 90%, from 20%to 80%, from 25% to 70%, including from 30% to 60%, compared to theconcentration of threonate in the extracellular medium of the neuronaltissue before the administering.

In some embodiments, the dosage form may include additional agents, suchas a pharmacological agent, a flavoring agent, a coloring agent,sweetening agent, a filling agent, a binding agent, a lubricating agent,an excipient, a preservative, a manufacturing agent, and/or the like,merely by way of example, in any suitable form.

In some embodiments, the present method includes co-administering asecond dosage form with the first dosage form containing thethreonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof. The second dosageform may include an amount of a magnesium-containing compound. Anysuitable magnesium compound may be used, with the proviso that themagnesium compound is not magnesium threonate. Suitable magnesiumcompounds include, e.g., magnesium salt of an amino acid, magnesiumacetate, magnesium ascorbate, magnesium citrate, magnesium gluconate,magnesium lactate, magnesium malate, magnesium pyrrolidone carboxylateand magnesium taurate. The second dosage form may be provided in thepresent method in a manner such that the magnesium containing compounddoes not physically contact the threonate-containing compound, e.g.,when formulated or when administered to an individual. Thus, in somecases, the first dosage form containing the threonate-containingcompound and the second dosage form containing the magnesium containingcompound may be configured to be administered to an individual or a cellat different times. In some cases, the first dosage form and the seconddosage form may be configured to be provided in different compartmentsthat are physically isolated from each other when administeredsimultaneously to an individual or a cell. In some cases, the firstdosage form and/or the second dosage form may be coated with a suitablecoating that physically isolates one form the other when administeredsimultaneously to an individual or a cell. The amount of magnesium inthe second dosage form may be any suitable amount. In some embodiments,a second dosage form in the form of a pill, tablet, capsule, or likedevice, may comprise from about 30 mg to about 200 mg of elementalmagnesium. In other embodiments, a second dosage form may contain fromabout 50 mg to about 100 mg of elemental magnesium associated with theat least one magnesium-containing compound. In still other embodiments,a second dosage form in the form of a food serving, or like dietaryserving, may comprise from about 20 mg to about 1 g or even 1.5 g ofelemental magnesium. In still other embodiments, a second dosage form inthe form of a food serving, or like dietary serving, may comprise fromabout 50 mg to about 800 mg of elemental magnesium.

A second dosage form appropriate for administration to a subject may beprovided in a liquid form, such as one suitable for oral administration,parenteral administration and/or other appropriate routes. Such acomposition may comprise any suitable additional agent or agents,whether active or passive. Examples of such agents include water, asweetening agent, a flavoring agent, a coloring agent, a texturingagent, a stabilizing agent, a preservative, a manufacturing agent,and/or the like, in any suitable form. A component that may negativelyaffect magnesium bioavailability, such as a phosphate or apolyphosphate, for example, may be avoided. A second dosage form in aliquid form may comprise from about 5 mg/L to about 12 g/L, such as fromabout 50 mg/L to about 12 g/L, for example, of elemental magnesiumassociated with the magnesium-containing compound. An amount of fromabout 50 mg/L to about 3 g/L, such as from about 100 mg/L to about 1.5g/L, for example, of elemental magnesium associated with themagnesium-containing compound may be suitable for prophylacticapplication and/or nutritional application. An amount of from about 300mg/L to about 12 g/L, such as from about 500 mg/L to about 3.5 g/L, forexample, of elemental magnesium associated with the magnesium-containingcompound may be suitable for therapeutic application.

The first dosage form may be provided in a form that is other than thatof the second dosage form. For example, at least onethreonate-containing compound may be provided in a solid form, such assolid food or cereal that is taken with a second dosage form in a liquidform, such as a liquid dietary substance. Such administration of dosageforms in multiple forms, may occur simultaneously (e.g., ingesting athreonate tablet with magnesium compound-fortified milk), or atdifferent times.

The co-administration may include any suitable manner of administratingthe first and second dosage forms. In some cases, the first and seconddosage forms are administered at the same time. In some cases, the firstdosage form is administered after the second dosage form, or the seconddosage form is administered after the first dosage form. In some cases,the first and second dosage forms are administered in alternatingsequence. In some cases, the second dosage form is administered once forevery 2 or more, e.g., 3 or more, 4 or more, 5 or more, including 10 ormore, and in some cases, every 20 or fewer, e.g., 15 or fewer, 10 orfewer, 8 or fewer, including 5 or fewer administrations of the firstdosage form. In some cases, the second dosage form is administered oncefor every 2 to 20 administrations, e.g., 2 to 15 administrations, 2 to10 administrations, 2 to 8 administrations, including 2 to 5administrations of the first dosage form. In some cases, the firstdosage form is administered once for every 2 or more, e.g., 3 or more, 4or more, 5 or more, including 10 or more, and in some cases, every 20 orfewer, e.g., 15 or fewer, 10 or fewer, 8 or fewer, including 5 or feweradministrations of the second dosage form. In some cases, the firstdosage form is administered once for every 2 to 20 administrations,e.g., 2 to 15 administrations, 2 to 10 administrations, 2 to 8administrations, including 2 to 5 administrations of the second dosageform.

In some embodiments, the dosage form containing the threonate-containingcompound is a threonate-containing dietary supplement, where the dietarysupplement further may not contain magnesium threonate, or amagnesium-containing precursor thereof. In some embodiments, the presentdietary supplement contains one or more threonate-containing compounds,or precursors thereof, of the present disclosure and may optionallycontain other ingredients generally recognized as safe for food additiveuse, including, but not limited to, preservatives (e.g., butylatedhydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisole), food grade emulsifiers (e.g.,lecithin, propylene glycol esters), and pharmaceutically acceptablecarriers and excipients (e.g., binders, fillers, lubricants, dissolutionaids).

In some embodiments, the present dietary supplement of the presentinvention is made by combining sodium threonate or otherthreonate-containing compounds, or precursors thereof, of the presentdisclosure, as well as any optional components, in the desired relativeamounts and mixing the components according to known methods to producea substantially homogeneous mixture.

In another embodiment, the present dietary supplement may also containother nutritional active materials including, without limitation,calcium-containing materials such as calcium carbonate, stannol esters,hydroxycitric acid, vitamins, minerals, herbals (e.g., herbal extracts),spices and mixtures thereof. Examples of vitamins that are available asadditional ingredients include, but are not limited to, vitamin A(retinol), vitamin D (cholecalciferol), vitamin E group(alpha-tocopherol and other tocopherols), vitamin K group(phylloquinones and menaquinones), thiamine (vitamin B₁), riboflavin(vitamin B₂), niacin, vitamin B₆ group, folic acid, vitamin B12(cobalamins), biotin, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), and mixtures thereof.The amount of vitamin or vitamins present in the final product isdependent on the particular vitamin. Examples of minerals that areavailable as additional ingredients include, but are not limited to,calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, iodine, selenium, potassium,copper, manganese, molybdenum and mixtures thereof. In some embodiments,the mineral ingredient is provided in the dietary supplement such thatthe mineral ingredient is in a separate physical compartment (e.g.,separate layer) from the threonate-containing compound such that themineral ingredient does not physically contact the threonate-containingcompound in the dietary supplement. As is the case with vitamins, theamount of mineral or minerals present in the final product is dependenton the particular mineral. It will be clear to one of skill in the artthat the present list of additional nutraceutical components areprovided by way of example only, and are not intended to be limiting.

In some embodiments, the present dietary supplement is formulated tohave suitable and desirable taste, texture, and viscosity forconsumption. Any suitable food carrier can be used in the presentdietary supplement. Food carriers of the present disclosure include anysuitable food product. Examples of such food carriers include, but arenot limited to, food bars (granola bars, protein bars, candy bars,etc.), cereal products (oatmeal, breakfast cereals, granola, etc.),bakery products (bread, donuts, crackers, bagels, pastries, cakes,etc.), beverages (milk-based beverage, sports drinks, fruit juices,alcoholic beverages, bottled waters), pastas, grains (rice, corn, oats,rye, wheat, flour, etc.), egg products, snacks (candy, chips, gum,chocolate, etc.), meats, fruits, and vegetables.

For example, liquid food carriers may be used according to the presentdisclosure to obtain the present dietary supplement in the form ofbeverages, such as supplemented juices, coffees, teas, and the like. Inother embodiments, solid food carriers may be used according to thepresent disclosure to obtain the present dietary supplement in the formof meal replacements, such as supplemented snack bars, pasta, breads,and the like. In yet other embodiments, semi-solid food carriers may beused according to the present disclosure to obtain the present dietarysupplement in the form of gums, chewy candies or snacks, and the like.

In some embodiments, the supplement composition of the presentdisclosure may be administered in any oral dosage form, including liquiddosage forms (e.g., a suspension or slurry), and oral solid dosage forms(e.g., a tablet or bulk powder). As used herein the term “tablet” refersgenerally to tablets, caplets, capsules, including soft gelatincapsules, and lozenges.

Tablets are made by methods known in the art and may further includesuitable binders, lubricants, diluents, disintegrating agents,colorants, flavoring agents, flow-inducing agents, melting agents whichare known in the art. The oral solid dosage form may, optionally, have afilm coating to protect the components of the present dietary supplementfrom one or more of moisture, oxygen and light or to mask anyundesirable taste or appearance. Suitable coating agents include, forexample, cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose. Where desired,tablets can be formulated in sustained release format. Methods of makingsustained release tablets are known in the art, e.g., see US2006051416and US20070065512, both of which are incorporated herein by reference.

In still other embodiments, the threonate-containing compounds, orprecursors thereof, of the present disclosure are added to foodstuffs.Such foodstuffs may be naturally high or low in threonate. Otherfoodstuffs are readily apparent and multiple examples have beendescribed. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,790,462, 6,261,589, and U.S.patent application Ser. Nos. 10/725,609 and 11/602,126.

In some embodiments, the dosage form containing the threonate-containingcompound, or precursor thereof, is a pharmaceutical composition,typically for administration to a person in need of therapeutic levelsof threonate, e.g., to treat deficiencies in synaptic density and/ordiseases associated therewith. Various delivery systems are known andcan be used to administer the threonate-containing compound of thepresent disclosure, e.g., encapsulation in liposomes, microparticles,microcapsules, etc. Methods of delivery include but are not limited to,intra-arterial, intramuscular, intravenous, intranasal, and oral routes.In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions is deliveredlocally to the area in need of treatment; this may be achieved by, forexample, and not by way of limitation, transdermal patches, localinfusion during surgery, by injection, by means of a catheter (with orwithout an attached pump), or bathing in a solution containing thethreonate-containing compound. In some embodiments, the agents aredelivered to a subject's nerve systems, preferably the central nervoussystem.

In some embodiments, administration of a pharmaceutical compositioncontaining the present threonate-containing compound, or precursorthereof, can be effected in one dose, continuously or intermittentlythroughout the course of treatment. Methods of determining the mosteffective means and dosage of administration are well known to those ofskill in the art and will vary with the composition used for therapy,the purpose of the therapy, the target cell or tissue being treated, andthe individual being treated. Single or multiple administrations can becarried out with the dose level and pattern being selected by thetreating physician.

For oral administration, the pharmaceutical composition containing thepresent threonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, mayoptionally be formulated by mixing the threonate-containing compound, orprecursor thereof, with physiologically or pharmaceutically acceptablecarriers that are well known in the art. Such oral dosage forms may beformulated as tablets, pills, dragees, capsules, emulsions, lipophilicand hydrophilic suspensions, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries,suspensions and the like, for oral ingestion by an individual or apatient to be treated.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is contained incapsules. Capsules suitable for oral administration include push-fitcapsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules made ofgelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. The push-fitcapsules can contain the active ingredients in admixture with fillersuch as lactose, binders such as starches, and/or lubricants such astale or magnesium stearate and, optionally, stabilizers. Optionally, thepharmaceutical composition for oral use can be obtained by mixing thethreonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, with a solidexcipient, optionally grinding a resulting mixture, and processing themixture of granules, after adding suitable auxiliaries, if desired, toobtain tablets or dragee cores. Suitable excipients are, in particular,fillers such as sugars, including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, orsorbitol; cellulose preparations such as, for example, maize starch,wheat starch, rice starch, potato starch, gelatin, gum tragacanth,methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, sodiumcarboxymethylcellulose, and/or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). If desired,disintegrating agents may be added, such as the cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone, agar, or alginic acid or a salt thereof such as sodiumalginate. Dragee cores are provided with suitable coatings. For thispurpose, concentrated sugar solutions may be used, which may optionallycontain gum arabic, talc, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, carbopol gel,polyethylene glycol, and/or titanium dioxide, lacquer solutions, andsuitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures. Dyestuffs or pigments maybe added to the tablets or dragee coatings for identification or tocharacterize different combinations of active compound doses. For buccaladministration, the pharmaceutical composition may take the form oftablets or lozenges formulated in a conventional manner. Foradministration by inhalation, the pharmaceutical composition of thepresent disclosure may be delivered in the form of an aerosol spraypresentation from pressurized packs or a nebulizer, with the use of asuitable propellant, e.g., dichlorodifluoromethane,trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, carbon dioxide orother suitable gas, or from propellant-free, dry-powder inhalers. In thecase of a pressurized aerosol the dosage unit may be determined byproviding a valve to deliver a metered amount. Capsules and cartridgesof, e.g., gelatin for use in an inhaler or insufflator may be formulatedcontaining a powder mix of the compound and a suitable powder base suchas lactose or starch.

The preparation of pharmaceutical compositions of the present disclosureis conducted in accordance with generally accepted procedures for thepreparation of pharmaceutical preparations. See, for example,Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences 18th Edition (1990), E. W. Martined., Mack Publishing Co., PA. Depending on the intended use and mode ofadministration, it may be desirable to process further thethreonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, in the preparationof pharmaceutical compositions. Appropriate processing may includemixing with appropriate non-toxic and non-interfering components,sterilizing, dividing into dose units, and enclosing in a deliverydevice.

Pharmaceutical compositions for oral, intranasal, or topicaladministration can be supplied in solid, semi-solid or liquid forms,including tablets, capsules, powders, liquids, and suspensions.Compositions for injection can be supplied as liquid solutions orsuspensions, as emulsions, or as solid forms suitable for dissolution orsuspension in liquid prior to injection. For administration via therespiratory tract, a preferred composition is one that provides a solid,powder, or aerosol when used with an appropriate aerosolizer device.

Liquid pharmaceutically acceptable compositions can, for example, beprepared by dissolving or dispersing a polypeptide embodied herein in aliquid excipient, such as water, saline, aqueous dextrose, glycerol, orethanol. The composition can also contain other medicinal agents,pharmaceutical agents, adjuvants, carriers, and auxiliary substancessuch as wetting or emulsifying agents, and pH buffering agents.

In some embodiments, magnesium supplementation is provided with apharmaceutical composition containing a threonate-containing compound ofthe present disclosure, to achieve optimal body magnesium status, bysupplementing a person's diet with a magnesium-containing compound. Adesired body magnesium status may be defined and/or determined in avariety of ways, including, but not limited to blood magnesiumconcentration, CSF magnesium concentration, tissue magnesiumconcentration, intracellular magnesium concentration, and blood cell,e.g., red blood cell, magnesium concentration. Desired body magnesiumstatus may be applicable for general health as well as for specifictherapeutic applications described herein (e.g., mild cognitiveimpairment, AD, depression, osteoporosis, diabetes, etc.). It will beunderstood that for treatment of different conditions, the optimal bodymagnesium status may be different to achieve the desired effects.

The pharmaceutical compositions can be formulated in slow release orsustained release forms, whereby a relatively consistent level of theactive compound is provided over an extended period. In someembodiments, a threonate-containing compound and/or other therapeuticagents may be administered jointly or separately by using a controlledrelease dosage form. Controlled release within the scope of thisinvention can be taken to mean any one of a number of extended releasedosage forms. Extended release dosage forms are described in Heaton etal., U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. US2005/0129762 A1 and Edgren etal. U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2007/0128279 A1, which are hereinincorporated by reference. Time-release formulations are known in theart and are described in Sawada et al. U.S. Patent Application Pub. No.2006/0292221 A1, which is herein incorporated by reference. Thefollowing terms may be considered to be substantially equivalent tocontrolled release for the purposes of the present invention: continuousrelease, controlled release, delayed release, depot, gradual release,long-term release, programmed release, prolonged release, proportionaterelease, protracted release, repository, retard, slow release, spacedrelease, sustained release, time coat, timed release, delayed action,extended action, layered-time action, long acting, prolonged action,repeated action, slowing acting, sustained action, sustained-actionmedications, and extended release. Further discussions of these termsmay be found in Lesczek Krowczynski, Extended-Release Dosage Forms, 1987(CRC Press, Inc.). The various controlled release technologies cover avery broad spectrum of drug dosage forms. Controlled releasetechnologies include, but are not limited to, physical systems andchemical systems.

The present disclosure also provides an excipient with the presentthreonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, with or withoutadditional agents, e.g., threonate-containing compound, or precursorthereof, can function as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a threonate-containingcompound, or a precursor thereof, can be pressed into pill form withoutan excipient. In other embodiments, threonate-containing compound, or aprecursor thereof, may be combined with a pharmaceutically acceptablelubricant, such as magnesium stearate. In stilt other embodiments,threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, may be combinedwith other ingredients which affect cognitive functions and/or generalhealth (e.g., vitamins D and E). In still other embodiments, a pill,tablet, dragee, lozenge or other acceptable pharmaceutical form maycontain threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, as anexcipient and be combined with another agent of choice, including, butnot limited to drugs used to treat AD (e.g., cholinesterase inhibitorsAricept, Exelon, Razadine; glutamate regulators-memantine). One of skillin the art will recognize that any number of other pharmaceuticals,nutraceuticals, supplements and other components may be added to thedosage forms herein described where a threonate-containing compound, ora precursor thereof, is used as an excipient.

In some embodiments, microcrystalline cellulose is used as an excipientfor direct compression processing. In some embodiments, a wetgranulation process will be utilized.

Depending upon the amount and type of drying, the concentration of thethreonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, in the form of awet cake and any augmenting agents present, the compressible particlesmay have different particle sizes, densities, pH, moisture content, etc.One skilled in the art will appreciate that the presentthreonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, may be used incombination with other excipients, including, but not limited to,lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide,stearic acid, starch (corn), sodium starch clycolate, povidone,pregelatinized starch, croscarmellose, ethylcellulose, calcium phosphate(dibasic), talc, sucrose, calcium stearate, hydroxy propylmethylcellulose and shellac (and glaze).

Examples of therapeutically active agents for which improveddisintegration results can be obtained include ibuprofen, aldoril, andgemfebrozil, which are relatively high dose (greater than 200 mg/dose)and water-insoluble; verapamil, maxzide, diclofenac and metrolol, whichare moderate-dose drug (25-200 mg/dose) and water-soluble; maproltiline,which is moderate dose (25-200 mg/dose) and water-insoluble; triazolamand minoxidil, which are relatively low dose (less than 25 mg/dose) andwater-soluble. These examples are provided for discussion purposes only,and are intended to demonstrate the broad scope of applicability of thepresent disclosure to a wide variety of drugs. It is not meant to limitthe scope of the present disclosure in any way.

Surfactants which may be used in the present invention as acompressibility augmenting agent generally include allpharmaceutically-acceptable surfactants. Suitablepharmaceutically-acceptable anionic surfactants include, for example,those containing carboxylate, sulfonate, and sulfate ions. Thosecontaining carboxylate ions are sometimes referred to as soaps and aregenerally prepared by saponification of natural fatty acid glycerides inalkaline solutions. The most common cations associated with thesesurfactants are sodium, potassium, ammonium and triethanolamine. Thechain length of the fatty acids range from 12 to 18. Although a largenumber of alkyl sulfates are available as surfactants, one particularlypreferred surfactant is sodium lauryl sulfate. In some cases, the sodiumlauryl sulfate is used as an emulsifying agent in amounts of up to about0.1% by weight of the formulation.

Alternative anionic surfactants include docusate salts such as thesodium salt thereof. Other suitable anionic surfactants include, withoutlimitation, alkyl carboxylates, acyl lactylates, alkyl ethercarboxylates, N-acyl sarcosinates, polyvalent alkyl carbonates, N-acylglutamates, fatty acid, polypeptide condensates and sulfuric acidesters.

In other aspects of the present disclosure amphoteric(amphipathic/amphiphilic surfactants), non-ionic surfactants and/orcationic surfactants are included in the coprocessed compositions of thepresent disclosure. Suitable pharmaceutically-acceptable non-ionicsurfactants such as, for example, polyoxyethylene compounds, lecithin,ethoxylated alcohols, ethoxylated esters, ethoxylated amides,polyoxypropylene compounds, propoxylated alcohols,ethoxylated/propoxylated block polymers, propoxylated esters,alkanolamides, amine oxides, fatty acid esters of polyhydric alcohols,ethylene glycol esters, diethylene glycol esters, propylene glycolesters, glycerol esters, polyglycerol fatty acid esters, SPAN's (e.g.,sorbitan esters), TWEEN's (i.e., sucrose esters), glucose (dextrose)esters and simethicone.

Other suitable pharmaceutically-acceptable surfactants include acacia,benzalkonium chloride, cholesterol, emulsifying wax, glycerolmonostearate, lanolin alcohols, lecithin, poloxamer, polyoxyethylene,and castor oil derivatives.

Highly polar molecules may also be utilized as the compressibilityaugmenting agent. Such highly polar molecules include certain dyes,particular those which may be capable of binding to the cellulosesurface while thereafter creating a relatively hydrophobic environmentdue to the presence of a hydrophobic portion of the molecule (e.g., ahydrophobic tail) which “points away” from the cellulose surface anddiscourages hydrophilic surface-to-surface cellulose interactions, suchas hydrogen-bonding. Preferably, the dye is one which ispharmaceutically acceptable for inclusion in solid dosage forms.

Examples of suitable dyes include Congo Red (chemical name:3,3′-[[1,1′Biphenyl]-4,4′-diylbis-(azo)]bis[4-amino-1-naphthalenesulfouicacid]disodium salt; FD&C Red No. 40 (also known as “Allura Red”)(chemical name: Disodium salt of6-hydroxy-5[(2-methyl-4-sulfophenyl)azo]-2-naphthalenesulfonic acid);FD&C Yellow No. 5 (common name: tartrazine) (chemical name:5-oxo-1-(p-sulfophenyl)-4-[(p-sulfophenyl)azo]-2-pyrazoline-3-carboxylicacid, trisodium salt); FD&C Yellow No. 6 (common name: Sunset YellowFCF) (chemical name: Disodium salt of1-p-sulphophenylazo-2-naphthol-6-sulfonic acid); Ponceau 4R (chemicalname: Trisodium-2-hydroxy-1-(4-sulfonato-1-naphthylazo)naphthalene-6,8-disulfonate); Brown HT (chemical name: Disodium4,4′-(2,4-dihydroxy-5-hydroxymethyl-3,3-phenylenebisazo)di(napthalene-1-sulfonate)); Brilliant Black BN (Chemical name:Tetrasodium4-acetamido-5-hydroxy-6-[7-sulfonato-4-(4-sulfonatophenylazo)-1-naphthylazo]naphthalene-1,7-disulfonate);Carmoisine (chemical name: Disodium4-hydroxy-3-(4-sulfanato-1-naphythylazo) Naphthalene-1-sulfonate);Amaranth (chemical name: Trisodium2-hydroxy-1-(4-sulfonato-1-naphthylazo) naphthalene-3,6-disulfonate);and mixtures thereof.

Other highly polar molecules which may be utilized as thecompressibility augmenting agent include optional additional activeagents themselves. For example, it is well-known to those skilled in theart that certain classes of pharmaceuticals, such as anti-pyschoticdrugs, are highly polar in nature and may be utilized as acompressibility augmenting agent in accordance with this invention.

The usable concentration range for the selected surfactant depends inpart upon not only its molecular weight but also its degree of foaming,particularly when present in agitated slurries which will be spray driedto form the desired particulate. Thus, in those aspects of the presentdisclosure where surfactants other than sodium lauryl sulfate arecoprocessed with the threonate-containing compound, or a precursorthereof, it is to be understood that the surfactant will be present inan amount which enhances the compressibility of the threonate-containingcompound, or a precursor thereof, and yet does not have a degree offoaming which would substantially inhibit spray drying.

In an embodiment utilizing a spray-drying process, an aqueous dispersionof threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, and acompressibility augmenting agent (for example, a surfactant or silicondioxide) is brought together with a sufficient volume of hot air toproduce evaporation and drying of the liquid droplets. The highlydispersed slurry is pumpable and capable of being atomized. It issprayed into a current of warm filtered air, which supplies the heat forevaporation and conveys a dried product to a collecting device. The airis then exhausted with the removed moisture. The resultant spray-driedpowder particles may be approximately spherical in shape and may berelatively uniform in size, thereby possessing excellent flowability.The coprocessed particles are not necessarily uniform or homogeneous.Other drying techniques such as flash drying, ring drying, microndrying, tray drying, vacuum drying, radio-frequency drying, and possiblymicrowave drying, may also be used.

Alternatively, all or part of the excipient may be subjected to a wetgranulation with an active ingredient. A representative wet granulationincludes loading the novel excipient particles into a suitablegranulator, such as those available from Baker-Perkins, and granulatingthe particles together with the active ingredient, preferably using anaqueous granulating liquid. In some embodiments, a portion of the totalamount of the novel excipient is wet granulated with the activeingredient, and thereafter the additional portion of the novel excipientis added to the granulate. In yet other embodiments, the additionalportion of the novel excipient to be added to the excipient/activeingredient granulate may be substituted with other excipients commonlyused by those skilled in the art, depending of course upon therequirements of the particular formulation.

In other embodiments of the present disclosure, a further material isadded to the threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof,and/or compressibility augmenting agent. Such additional materialsinclude silicon dioxides, non-silicon metal oxides, starches, starchderivatives, surfactants, polyalkylene oxides, cellulose A ethers,celluloses esters, mixtures thereof, and the like. Specific furthermaterials which may be included in the aqueous slurry (and consequentlyin the resultant agglomerated microcrystalline cellulose excipient) arealuminum oxide, stearic acid, kaolin, polydimethylsiloxane, silica gel,titanium dioxide, diatomaceous earth, corn starch, high amylose cornstarch, high amylopectin corn starch, sodium starch glycolate,hydroxylated starch, modified potato starch, mixtures thereof, and thelike. These additives may be included in desired amounts, which will beapparent to those skilled in the art.

In addition to one or more active ingredients, additionalpharmaceutically acceptable excipients (in the case of pharmaceuticals)or other additives known to those skilled in the art (fornon-pharmaceutical applications) can be added to the excipient prior topreparation of the final product. For example, if desired, any generallyaccepted soluble or insoluble inert pharmaceutical filler (diluent)material can be included in the final product (e.g., a solid dosageform). Such inert pharmaceutical filler may comprise a monosaccharide, adisaccharide, a polyhydric alcohol, inorganic phosphates, sulfates orcarbonates, and/or mixtures thereof. Examples of suitable inertpharmaceutical fillers include sucrose, dextrose, lactose, xylitol,fructose, sorbitol, calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, calciumcarbonate, microcrystalline cellulose, mixtures thereof, and the like.

An effective amount of any generally accepted pharmaceutical lubricant,including the calcium or magnesium soaps may optionally be added to theexcipient at the time the medicament is added, or in any event prior tocompression into a solid dosage form. The lubricant may comprise, forexample, magnesium stearate in any amount of about 0.5-3% by weight ofthe solid dosage form. In embodiments where a surfactant is included aspart or all of the compressibility augmenting agent, an additionalinclusion lubricant may not be necessary.

The complete mixture, in an amount sufficient to make a uniform batch oftablets, may then subjected to tableting in a conventional productionscale tableting machine at normal compression pressures for thatmachine, e.g., about 1500-10,000 lbs/sq in. The mixture may not becompressed to such a degree that there is subsequent difficulty in itshydration when exposed to gastric fluid.

The average tablet size for round tablets is preferably about 50 mg to500 mg and for capsule-shaped tablets about 200 mg to 2000 mg. However,other formulations prepared in accordance with the present invention maybe suitably shaped for other uses or locations, such as other bodycavities, e.g., periodontal pockets, surgical wounds, vaginally,rectally. It is contemplated that for certain uses, e.g., antacidtablets, vaginal tablets and possibly implants, that the tablet wilt belarger.

The active agent(s) which may be incorporated with the excipientdescribed herein into solid dosage forms invention include systemicallyactive therapeutic agents, locally active therapeutic agents,disinfecting agents, chemical impregnants, cleansing agents, deodorants,fragrances, dyes, animal repellents, insect repellents, fertilizingagents, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and plant growth stimulants,and the like.

A wide variety of therapeutically active agents can be used inconjunction with the threonate-containing compound, or a precursorthereof, of the present disclosure. The therapeutically active agents(e.g. pharmaceutical agents) which may be used in the compositions ofthe present disclosure include both water soluble and water insolubledrugs. Examples of such therapeutically active agents includeantihistamines (e.g., dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramineand dexchlorpheniramine maleate), analgesics (e.g., aspirin, codeine,morphine, dihydromorphone, oxycodone, etc.), non-steroidalanti-inflammatory agents (e.g., naproxyn, diclofenac, indomethacin,ibuprofen, sulindac), anti-emetics (e.g., metoclopramide),anti-epileptics (e.g., phenyloin, meprobamate and nitrazepam),vasodilators (e.g., nifedipine, papaverine, diltiazem and nicardirine),anti-tussive agents and expectorants (e.g., codeine phosphate),anti-asthmatics (e.g. theophylline), antacids, anti-spasmodics (e.g.atropine, scopolamine), antidiabetics (e.g., insulin), diuretics (e.g.,ethacrynic acid, bendrofluazide), anti-hypotensives (e.g., propranolol,clonidine), antihypertensives (e.g., clonidine, methyldopa),bronchodilators (e.g., albuterol), steroids (e.g., hydrocortisone,triamcinolone, prednisone), antibiotics (e.g., tetracycline),antihemorrhoidals, hypnotics, psychotropics, antidiarrheals, mucolytics,sedatives, decongestants, laxatives, vitamins, stimulants (includingappetite suppressants such as phenylpropanolamine). The above list isnot meant to be exclusive.

A wide variety of locally active agents can be used in conjunction withthe excipient described herein, and include both water soluble and waterinsoluble agents. The locally active agent(s) which may be included inthe controlled release formulation of the present invention is intendedto exert its effect in the environment of use, e.g., the oral cavity,although in some instances the active agent may also have systemicactivity via absorption into the blood via the surrounding mucosa.

The locally active agent(s) include antifungal agents (e.g.,amphotericin B, clotrimazole, nystatin, ketoconazole, miconazol, etc.),antibiotic agents (penicillins, cephalosporins, erythromycin,tetracycline, aminoglycosides, etc.), antiviral agents (e.g, acyclovir,idoxuridine, etc.), breath fresheners (e.g. chlorophyll), antitussiveagents (e.g., dextromethorphan hydrochloride), anti-cariogenic compounds(e.g., metallic salts of fluoride, sodium monofluorophosphate, stannousfluoride, amine fluorides), analgesic agents (e.g., methylsaticylate,salicylic acid, etc.), local anesthetics (e.g., benzocaine), oralantiseptics (e.g., chlorhexidine and salts thereof, hexylresorcinol,dequalinium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride), anti-inflammatoryagents (e.g., dexamethasone, betamethasone, prednisone, prednisolone,triamcinolone, hydrocortisone, etc.), hormonal agents (oestriol),antiplaque agents (e.g, chlorhexidine and salts thereof, octenidine, andmixtures of thymol, menthol, methysalicylate, eucalyptol), acidityreducing agents (e.g., buffering agents such as potassium phosphatedibasic, calcium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium and potassiumhydroxide, etc.), and tooth desensitizers (e.g., potassium nitrate).This list is not meant to be exclusive. The solid formulations of thepresent disclosure may also include other locally active agents, such asflavorants and sweeteners. Generally any flavoring or food additive suchas those described in Chemicals Used in Food Processing, pub 1274 by theNational Academy of Sciences, pages 63-258 may be used. Generally, thefinal product may include from about 0.1% to about 5% by weightflavorant.

The tablets of the present invention may also contain effective amountsof coloring agents, (e.g., titanium dioxide, F.D. & C. and D. & C. dyes;see the Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol. 5, pp.857-884, hereby incorporated by reference), stabilizers, binders, odorcontrolling agents, and preservatives.

Alternatively, the excipient can be utilized in other applicationswherein it is not compressed. For example, the granulate can be admixedwith an active ingredient and the mixture then filled into capsules. Thegranulate can further be molded into shapes other than those typicallyassociated with tablets. For example, the granulate together with activeingredient can be molded to “fit” into a particular area in anenvironment of use (e.g., an implant). All such uses would becontemplated by those skilled in the art and are deemed to beencompassed within the scope of the appended claims.

In further embodiments of the present disclosure, more than onecompressibility augmenting agent is used. Thus, for example, two or morecompressibility enhancing agents are used which provide an effect bydifferent mechanisms.

In some embodiments, the present method of administering athreonate-containing compound to an individual may increase the densityof synapses in a region of the brain by 5% or more, e.g., 10% or more,15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 35% or more,including 40% or more, and in some cases, by a factor of 75% or less,e.g., 60% or less, 55% or less, 50% or less, 45% or less, including 40%or less, compared to an appropriate control, e.g., the density ofsynapses in a comparable region of the brain in a control individual towhom the threonate-containing compound has not been administered. Insome embodiments, the present method of administering athreonate-containing compound to an individual may increase the densityof synapses in a region of the brain by from 5% to 75%, e.g., from 10%to 60%, from 10% to 55%, from 15% to 50%, including from 20% to 50%,compared to an appropriate control. The density of puncta may bemeasured, e.g., by measuring the number of fluorescent puncta inprocesses of neurons across a unit area of neuronal processes, where theneurons are immunostained with one or more antibodies to synapticproteins (e.g., synaptophysin and/or PSD-95), or are geneticallymodified to express a detectably labeled (e.g., fluorescently tagged)synaptic protein. In vivo measurements of synaptic density in the brainmay be done by, e.g., positron emission tomography (PET) scanning usingan appropriate tracer (e.g., ¹⁸F-fludeoxyglucose, (FDG), ¹¹C-UCB-J or¹⁸F-UCB-H).

In some cases, the present method of administering athreonate-containing compound to an individual may be sufficient toincrease the expression of a N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptorsubunit involved in synaptic plasticity, e.g., expression of NR2B, inneurons in a region of the brain, by 10% or more, e.g., 20% or more, 30%or more, 40% or more, 50% or more, 60% or more, including 70% or more,and in some cases, by a factor of 100% or less, e.g., 90% or less, 80%or less, 70% or less, 60% or less, including 50% or less, compared to anappropriate control, e.g., the expression level of the NMDA receptorsubunit in a comparable region of the brain in a control individual towhom the threonate-containing compound has not been administered. Insome embodiments, the present method of administering athreonate-containing compound to an individual may be sufficient toincrease the expression of a NMDA receptor in a region of the brain byfrom 10% to 100%, e.g., from 20% to 90%, from 30% to 80%, including from40% to 70% compared to an appropriate control. The expression level of aNMDA receptor in a region of the brain may be measured, e.g., byperforming a Western blot with homogenates of the brain region andprobing for the NMDA receptor subunit using an antibody specific to thesubunit.

In some embodiments, the present method of administering athreonate-containing compound to an individual may be sufficient toincrease mitochondrial function in neurons of a brain region by 10% ormore, e.g., 20% or more, 30% or more, 40% or more, 50% or more, 60% ormore, including 70% or more, and in some cases, by 100% or less, e.g.,90% or less, 80% or less, 70% or less, 60% or less, including 50% orless, compared to an appropriate control, e.g., mitochondrial functionin neurons from a comparable region of the brain in a control individualto whom the threonate-containing compound has not been administered. Insome embodiments, the present method of administering athreonate-containing compound to an individual may be sufficient toincrease mitochondrial function in neurons of a brain region by from 10%to 100%, e.g., from 20% to 90%, from 30% to 80%, including from 40% to70%, compared to an appropriate control. Mitochondrial function inneurons of a region of the brain may be measured, e.g., by measuring theaggregation of JC-1 to estimate ΔΨ_(m).

In some embodiments, the present method of administering athreonate-containing compound to an individual may be sufficient toincrease the density of functional neuronal termini in a region of thebrain by 5% or more, e.g., 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% ormore, including 30% or more, and in some cases, by 40% or less, e.g.,35% or less, 30% or less, 25% or less, including 20% or less, comparedto an appropriate control, e.g., the density of functional neuronaltermini in a comparable region of the brain in a control individual towhom the threonate-containing compound has not been administered. Insome embodiments, the present method of administering athreonate-containing compound to an individual may be sufficient toincrease the density of functional neuronal termini in a region of thebrain by from 5% to 40%, e.g., 10% to 35%, 10% to 30%, including 10% to20%, compared to an appropriate control. The density of functionalneuronal termini may be measured, e.g., by measuring uptake of an FMdye, e.g., FM1-43, along a unit area of neuronal termini.

Kits

Also provided herein is a kit that includes a therapeutic compositionwith a therapeutically effective amount of a threonate-containingcompound, or a precursor thereof, as described above. Thethreonate-containing compound may be any suitable compound, or aprecursor thereof, as described above, with the proviso that thethreonate-containing compound is not a magnesium salt. The present kitmay also contain a packaging (e.g., a vial, a blister packaging, a tube,a bag, a box, etc.) for holding the therapeutic composition. A kit ofthe present disclosure may find use in improving cognitive functionand/or reduce cognitive impairment, by administering thethreonate-containing compound to an individual.

In some embodiments, the present kit includes a supplemental compositioncontaining a magnesium-containing compound, as described above.

In some embodiments, the present kit includes instructions for using thethreonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, (e.g., a dosageform or a composition containing the threonate-containing compound, or aprecursor thereof) of the present disclosure. The instructions aregenerally recorded on a suitable recording medium. For example, theinstructions may be printed on a substrate, such as paper or plastic,etc. As such, the instructions may be present in the kits as a packageinsert, in the labeling of the container of the kit or componentsthereof (i.e., associated with the packaging or subpackaging) etc. Inother embodiments, the instructions are present as an electronic storagedata file present on a suitable computer readable storage medium, e.g.CD-ROM, digital versatile disc (DVD), flash drive, Blue-ray Disc™ etc.In yet other embodiments, the actual instructions are not present in thekit, but methods for obtaining the instructions from a remote source,e.g. via the internet, are provided. An example of this embodiment is akit that includes a web address where the instructions can be viewedand/or from which the instructions can be downloaded. As with theinstructions, the methods for obtaining the instructions are recorded ona suitable substrate.

Components of a subject kit can be in separate containers; or can becombined in a single container.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinaryskill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how tomake and use the disclosed subject matter, and are not intended to limitthe scope of what the inventors regard as their invention nor are theyintended to represent that the experiments below are all or the onlyexperiments performed. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy withrespect to numbers used (e.g. amounts, temperature, etc.) but someexperimental errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unlessindicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, molecular weight isweight average molecular weight, temperature is in degrees Celsius, andpressure is at or near atmospheric. Standard abbreviations may be used,e.g., bp, base pair(s); kb, kilobase(s); pl, picoliter(s); s or sec,second(s); min, minute(s); h or hr, hour(s); aa, amino acid(s); kb,kilobase(s); bp, base pair(s); nt, nucleotide(s); i.m.,intramuscular(ly); i.p., intraperitoneal(ly); s.c., subcutaneous(ly);and the like.

Example 1: Materials and Methods Experimental Animals

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were originally purchased from Vital RiverLaboratory (Animal Technology Co. Ltd., Beijing, China) and bred inTsinghua University's laboratory animal center. All rats wereindividually housed in a controlled environment, under an inverted lightcycle (light onset at 8:00 p.m. to 8:00 a.m.) and had free access tofood and water. On arrival and before the start of the experiments (seebelow), rats were fed a commercial pelleted diet (Shanghai SLACLaboratory Animal Co. Ltd), containing normal Mg²⁺ (0.15%) and tap waterad lib. All procedures on rats were approved by Tsinghua UniversityCommittee on Animal Care.

Threonate Measurement in Plasma and Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)

To test baseline plasma and CSF threonate concentrations, 3 month oldrats were fed deionized water without threonate for 1 month. Water wasremoved for 6 hr prior to sample collection as a washout period. Then,using the previously describe minimum effective dose of L-threonic acidmagnesium salt (L-TAMS) (Neurocentria, Inc., CA, USA) in rats (604mg/kg/day) (Slutsky et al., 2010), rats were administered either L-TAMS(via deionized drinking water) for 1 month or water only (control). Ratchow for both groups contained basic nutritional Mg²⁺ concentration at0.15%. Prior to blood and CSF collection, water was removed for 6 hr asa washout period.

To determine threonate concentrations in the plasma and cerebrospinalfluid (CSF), rats were anesthetized with Chloral hydrate (350 mg/kg,i.p.), and then blood and CSF samples were collected from the orbitalsinus and cisterna magna, respectively. Blood (0.5-1 ml/rat) and CSF(50-100/rat) samples were collected, centrifuged, and stored at −20° C.until threonate measurement was performed.

Threonate levels in plasma and CSF were determined by high-performanceliquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS, Center ofBiomedical Analysis, Tsinghua University) as described previously (Wanget al., 2006. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 834,155-162). Briefly, after a simple protein precipitation with methanol,Plasma and CSF samples were centrifuged at 14800 rpm for 15 min, andthen the supernatants were collected for analysis. An Eclipse Plus C18column (4.6×100 mm, 3.5 μm) (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, Calif.,USA) was employed to separate the analyte. The mobile phase consisted oftwo solvents: 12.5 mM ammonia, 15 mM ammonium acetate in water (A) and100% methanol (B). Gradient conditions: 0-2.5 min 90% A/10% B; 2.5-5 min90-20% A/10-80% B. The flow rate was 0.4 μl/min. The Agilent 6460 tripleQuadrupole mass spectrometer, equipped with Electrospray Ion Source(ESI) was operated under a negative ionization mode. Multiple reactionsmonitoring (MRM) transition of m/z 135.1→75.0 was chosen to quantifythreonate. Calibration curves were obtained for the following range ofthreonate concentrations: 10 to 1000 nM/L.

Hippocampal Neuron Cultures

Hippocampal neurons were prepared from postnatal 1 day old rats fromVital River Laboratory and cultured as previous described (Liu et al.,1999. Neuron 22, 395-409; Liu et al., 1995. Nature 375, 404-408).Following a previously described neuronal culture protocol (Kaech etal., 2006. Nat Protoc 1, 2406-2415), and based on the knowninsulin/insulin-like growth factor concentrations in rat, we added 10ng/ml insulin (in addition to insulin in B27) into 0.6 mM [Mg²⁺]_(o)culture medium. 2 days after plating, cytosine arabinoside (ARA-C,Sigma) was added to a final concentration of 2.5 μM to inhibit glialproliferation. Neurons were plated onto Matrigel® (BD)-coated 8×8 mmcoverslips or 6-well cell plates (Corning).

Treatment with Threonate and Other Anions

We used sodium-L-threonate (NaT, Biotium, USA) to study short-term (4hr) and long-term (2 days) treatment of threonate on mature hippocampalneurons (14-21 days in vitro: DIV). The following anions were used inthis study: citrate (200 μM), gluconate (1 mM), malate (5 μM) andglycinate (400 μM) (all from Sigma). The dosage of analogs in culturemedium were determined by their known concentrations in vivo (Harrisonet al., 2010; Hoffmann et al., 1993; Subramanian et al., 2005). Forchemical structure see supplemental FIG. 1 .

Intracellular Free Mg²⁺ Analysis

[Mg²⁺]_(i) was determined by using Magnesium Green™ (MgGreen,Invitrogen). Briefly, neurons were incubated in 2 ml tyrode's buffer(NaCl, 124 mM; KCl, 5 mM; CaCl₂, 2 mM; MgCl₂, 1 mM; glucose, 30 mM; andHEPES, 25 mM, pH 7.4 with NaOH) with 5 μg MgGreen dissolved for 30 minat 37° C., then washed 3 times, and images were collected using anOlympus IX-70 confocal microscope with the 60×water lens, at a 4×zoom.As described by Zhou (Zhou et al., 2015. Mol Brain 8, 42):

$\left\lbrack {Mg}^{2 +} \right\rbrack_{i} \propto \frac{F_{({a.u.})}}{D_{diameter}}$

Where F_((a.u.)) is the mean fluorescent density (arbitrary units) inthe branch of interest which was quantified by using Image-Pro Plussoftware (IPP, Media Cybernetics, Carlsbad, Calif.), and D_(diameter) isthe mean width of the same selected branch in DIC image.

Calculation of Functional Terminal Density by FM1-43 Imaging

The technique to quantify functional terminal density is detailed inZhou (2015). Briefly, to determine functional presynaptic boutons,mature hippocampal neurons (14-21 DIV) were stained with 10 μM FM1-43(synaptogreen, Biotium) following physiological pattern of stimulus (6bursts of 5 APs each at 100 Hz with a 10 s interburst interval), asdescribed by (Slutsky et al., 2004; Zhou and Liu, 2015). Background FM,determined by imaging after unloading of FM dye following 480 APs at 2Hz, was subtracted from the physiological action potential image.Terminals containing detectable amount of FM after subtraction wereconsidered to be functional.

Fluorescent images were acquired with an Olympus IX-70 confocalmicroscope with a 60×water lens (numerical aperture=1.2) at a dimensionof 78.6×78.6 m. FM 1-43+ puncta number per μm² of dendrite was used toestimate functional presynaptic terminal density.

Measurement of Mitochondrial Potential

Mitochondrial transmembrane potential (Δψ_(m)) of hippocampal neuronswas observed microscopically (Olympus IX-70) by using5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethylbenzimidazolylcarbocyanineiodide (JC-1, Invitrogen). The monomeric form of JC-1 has an emissionmaximum at 529 nm. At higher concentrations or potentials the dye formsred fluorescent J-aggregates with an emission maximum of 590 nm. Theratio of J-aggregate/J-monomer is used as an estimate of Δψ_(m). Matureneurons plated on coverslips were treated with threonate for 2 days,labeled with JC-1 (1 μM) in tyrode's buffer for 20 min at 37° C., thenwashed twice with tyrode's buffer, and images were collected at ×180magnification.

Differentiation of Human Neural Stem Cells to Neurons

Human fetal cortices-derived neural stem cells (hNSC; Angecon, China)were cultured in hNSC medium (Angecon) according to guidelines providedby Angecon. hNSCs were maintained in this medium for 10-14 days,passaged using Accutase (Invitrogen), washed and replated at a dilutionof 1:3 to 1:5.

A previously described differentiation protocol was used todifferentiate hNSCs to neurons. Briefly, hNSC cultures were dissociatedinto single cells with Accutase, and then plated onpolyornithine/laminin (Sigma)-coated 6-well plates at 50,000 cells percm² in neural maintenance medium with EGF (Invitrogen) and FGF2 (PeproTech) at a concentration of 10 ng ml⁻¹. Neural maintenance mediumconsists of a 1:1 mixture of DMEM/F12 and Neurobasal medium(Invitrogen), 1×N2 (Invitrogen), 1×B27 (Invitrogen), 1 mM L-glutamine,0.1 mM non-essential amino acids, 5 μg ml⁻¹ insulin, 0.1 mM2-mercaptoethanol, 25 U ml⁻¹ penicillin and 25 mg ml⁻¹ streptomycin.After 3-4 days, if the cells reached 95% confluence, culture medium waschanged to a neural induction medium, consisting of neural maintenancemedium, 500 ng ml⁻¹ Noggin (R&D Systems) and 10 μM SB431542 (Tocris).Neurons were maintained 10-14 days in this medium; medium was replacedevery day. When neuroepithelial cells appeared, Dispase (Roche) was usedto collect cells. They were replated in neural maintenance medium withEGF and FGF2 at 20 ng ml⁻¹ for 2-4 days, then changed to neuralmaintenance medium and cultured for up to 80 days, replacing mediumevery other day.

Immunocytochemistry

Neuronal cultures were washed three times in 0.01 M PBS followed byfixation for 20 min in 4% paraformaldehyde at 4° C. The neuronal culturecoverslips were then washed in PBS before incubation in blockingsolution containing 0.1% Triton X-100 and 1% bovine serum albumin for 30min at room temperature. Then, neurons were incubated with mouseanti-PSD-95 (AB2723, Abcam, 1:100), guinea pig anti-MAP2 (188004,Synaptic Systems, 1:300) and rabbit anti-synaptophysin (MAB5258,Millipore, 1:100) in blocking solution at 4° C. overnight. On thefollowing day, neurons were rinsed with PBS before 2 hr incubation withsecondary antibodies including: donkey anti-mouse IgG-CF 488A 1:100,donkey anti-guinea pig IgG-CF 555 1:300 and donkey anti-rabbit IgG-CF640R 1:200 (Biotium). Finally, neurons were mounted onto slides withanti-fade fluorescent mounting medium (Vector Laboratories) and storedat 4° C. for 2 days.

Quantification of Synaptophysin and PSD-95

Cultures were imaged with a confocal laser inverted microscope (OlympusIX-70) equipped with a 60×(NA 1.2) objective. Each image was collectedat a 4×zoom and a resolution of 1024×1024 with a serial z projection of5 images (thickness of 0.8 μm). The density of synaptophysin (Syn) andPSD-95 was estimated from images by analyzing with IPP. The puncta ofSyn and PSD-95, localized at the dendrites labeled by the neuronalmarker MAP2, were counted manually. To determine the density of Syn andPSD-95 colocalization, we aligned two sets of images and resultingyellow clusters (Syn: red; PSD-95: green) localized at dendritic werequantified. Fluorescence spots (red and green) having a diameter between0.1 and 0.6 m were classified.

Western Blot

Samples of threonate-treated and control hippocampal neurons weresolubilized in RIPA buffer (Sigma) containing protease inhibitors(Roche) and phosphatase inhibitors (Roche), then equal amount ofproteins were loaded onto 10% polyacrylamide gels. Proteins weretransferred to PVDF membranes (Millipore), probed with primaryantibodies against Synaptophysin (Millipore), RIM1 and Rab3a (SynapticSystem), PSD-95, NR2B, β-tubulin and/or β-actin (all from Cell SignalingTechnology) and then followed by an appropriate HRP-coupled secondaryantibody (Cell Signaling Technology). The signals were detected by ECLdetection reagent (GE Healthcare) and captured on autoradiography film(Kodak). For quantification of protein signals, the integrated opticaldensity (IOD) was measured with IPP, and β-tubulin or β-actin on thesame lane served as loading controls.

Statistical Analysis

All data are shown as mean±SEM (standard error of the mean). Statisticalsignificance was determined by two-tailed paired (samecoverslips)/unpaired Student's t test or one-way ANOVA followed byBonferroni's post hoc test. N represents total number of rats, and nrepresents the total number of separate cultures or coverslips. P<0.05was considered statistically significant.

Example 2: Threonate Treatment Elevates Threonate in the Cerebral SpinalFluid (CSF)

The distribution of threonate in the body was examined. Similar toprevious reports, plasma threonate concentration was approximately 20μM. Interestingly, in the CSF, threonate concentration was approximately100 μM, about 5-fold higher than in the periphery (p<0.001, FIG. 1A).The effects of oral dosing of L-TAMS (604 mg/kg/day) on the plasma andCSF concentrations of threonate were studied. The change of brainthreonate concentrations after oral threonate dosing was measured. Sinceit takes >2 weeks of L-TAMS treatment to have a noticeable effect on CSFMg²⁺ concentration and memory function, the concentration of threonatein plasma and CSF after 1 month treatment was monitored (seeexperimental paradigm, FIG. 1B). Following oral L-TAMS treatment for 1month, and 6 hour washout, threonate concentration did not change inplasma (FIG. 1C left panel), indicating there was no accumulation in theperiphery and that it could be quickly cleared (within 6 hours). Incontrast, threonate concentration increased significantly in the CSF by52% (p=0.01, FIG. 1C, right panel). These data indicate that with L-TAMStreatment, threonate accumulated in the CNS compartment, leading tosustained elevation of brain threonate, while in the peripheralcompartment threonate did not accumulate.

FIGS. 1A-1C Elevation of brain threonate by L-TAMS. (FIG. 1A) Threonateconcentrations (μM) in plasma and CSF were determined in 4 month oldrats (N=16), fed with normal chow and water. Each circle or squarerepresents an individual rat. (B) Schematic of L-TAMS treatmentparadigm. 3 month old rats were treated with normal water for one month,then blood and CSF were collected after a 6 hour washout period(“Before”), which constituted the control samples. Then rats weretreated for one month with L-TAMS, blood and CSF samples were collectedafter a 6 hour washout period (“After”). (C) Threonate concentrations(μM) in the plasma (N=12) and CSF (N=9) were determined before and after1 month treatment with L-TAMS. The concentration in plasma and CSF foreach timepoint is shown for each rat. The average of each group at eachtimepoint is shown in the histogram behind the individual rat data.Unpaired t test (A), paired t test (C); *p<0.05, ***p<0.001.

Example 3: Raising Extracellular Threonate Concentration PromotedElevation of Intracellular Magnesium Concentration

The possibility that treatment with threonate would elevateintracellular [Mg²⁺] in cultured rat hippocampal neurons was tested.First, neurons were cultured for two weeks at physiologicalextracellular [Mg²⁺] (0.8 mM or 1.2 mM), or at lower extracellular[Mg²⁺] (0.6 mM). The latter simulated the lower Mg²⁺ concentrationobserved in pathophysiological states such as in AD. Intracellular[Mg²⁺] was quantified by MgGrn fluorescent dye (see methods).Intracellular [Mg²⁺] was significantly higher at 0.8 and 1.2 mM than at0.6 mM extracellular [Mg²⁺] (Unpaired t test, p<0.0001; FIGS. 2A, 2B),and interestingly, intracellular [Mg²⁺] was significantly higher at 0.8mM than 1.2 mM extracellular [Mg²⁺] (Unpaired t test, p<0.01). 2 daytreatment with threonate (0-200 μM) induced an increase of intracellular[Mg²⁺] in a dosage-dependent manner at various extracellular [Mg²⁺] (0.6Mg, F_(4,26)=19.03, p<0.0001; 0.8 Mg, F_(4,27)=12.88, p<0.0001; 1.2 Mg,F_(4,25)=17.78, p<0.0001; FIG. 2A, B), up to 150 μM (FIG. 2B). Using thethreonate concentration that induced the largest change in intracellular[Mg²⁺] (150 μM), a time course analysis of the effects of threonate onintracellular [Mg²⁺] was performed (FIGS. 2C, 2D). Threonate effectswere maximal at 2 hr and this increase persisted for the entire courseof the experiment (F_(5,26)=10.83, p<0.0001; FIG. 2D). Intracellular[Mg²⁺] following long term treatment (>2 weeks) of threonate was similarto short term threonate treatment.

Elevated intracellular [Mg²⁺] might be due to increased Mg²⁺ influx,reduced Mg²⁺ efflux, and/or release of Mg²⁺ from organelles. Todetermine the source of the Mg²⁺ contributing to increased [Mg²⁺]_(i) bythreonate, the effects of threonate when extracellular [Mg²⁺] wasreduced significantly (0.1 mM) was studied. In line with previousexperiments, threonate treatment for 4 hr, under 0.6 mM extracellular[Mg²⁺], induced a significant ˜27% increase of intracellular [Mg²⁺].When extracellular [Mg²⁺] was reduced to 0.1 mM for 4 hr, there was nonoticeable decline in intracellular [Mg²⁺] (FIGS. 2E, 2F).Interestingly, under such condition, threonate no longer inducedelevation of intracellular [Mg²⁺] (FIG. 2E, F). These results indicatethat threonate elevated intracellular [Mg²⁺] of hippocampal neurons mostlikely by increasing net flux of Mg²⁺ into the neuron.

FIGS. 2A-2F Raising extracellular threonate concentration promoteselevation of [Mg²⁺]_(i). (FIG. 2A) Representative MgGreen (left columns)and DIC (right columns) fluorescent images of individual branches withvarying concentrations of [Mg²⁺]_(o) (0.6 or 0.8 or 1.2 mM; long-term,LT=2 weeks) and threonate (0-200 μM; 2 days). (FIG. 2B) [Mg²⁺]_(i) wascalculated as normalized F_((a.u)) by dividing each branch's MgGreenF_((a.u)) by its mean diameter (measured from DIC images), from imagesrepresented in FIG. 2A. The resulting averages for each [Mg²⁺]_(o) andthreonate concentration that was tested are displayed. Unpaired t testcompared [Mg²⁺]_(i) at different [Mg²⁺]_(o) (0.6 Mg, n=7; 0.8 Mg, n=8;1.2 Mg, n=7; ++p<0.01, +++p<0.001). In each group (0.6/0.8/1.2),threonate-treated neurons (n=5-6) were compared to controls, usingone-way ANOVA; *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001. (FIG. 2C) RepresentativeMgGreen (top row) and DIC (bottom row) fluorescent images of individualbranches after time course (0-36 hr) of threonate treatment (150 μM).(FIG. 2D) Time course line graph of average [Mg²⁺]_(i) of neurons(n=4-6); one-way ANOVA and Bonferroni's post hoc test, **p<0.01,***p<0.001 versus control (hour 0). (FIG. 2E) Representative MgGreen(left columns) and DIC (right columns) fluorescent images of individualbranches after 4 hour treatment with or without threonate (150 μM) inneuronal cultures under 0.6 mM (control) or 0.1 mM (0.1 Mg) [Mg²⁺].(FIG. 2F) Histogram of average [Mg²⁺]_(i) calculated from the MgGreenand DIC images represented in E. Unpaired t test compared [Mg²⁺]_(i) incontrol conditions (0.6 Mg; n=10) without threonate to 0.6 Mg withthreonate (n=4) and to 0.1 Mg with (n=8) and without (n=8) threonate;***p<0.001.

Example 4: Raising Extracellular Threonate Concentration IncreasesSynaptic Density and Upregulates NR2B-Containing NMDAR Expression

The effect of elevation of threonate on synaptic density and plasticitywas determined. Presynaptic terminal density was quantified by thedensity of synaptophysin (Syn) puncta (number per μm²) and postsynapticglutamatergic synapse density was quantified by the density of PSD-95puncta. Overall synapse density was determined by the colocalization ofSyn and PSD-95 expression. Threonate treatment significantly upregulatedthe density of Syn puncta, PSD-95 puncta, and colocalization ofSyn/PSD-95 (Syn, F_(3,16)=4.318, p=0.0207; PSD-95, F_(3,16)=6.315,p=0.005; Colocalization, F_(3,16)=5.653, p=0.0078; FIGS. 3A, 3B).

Western blot was used to verify the increase of pre- and postsynapticproteins in hippocampal neuronal cultures following threonate treatment.After 2 days of threonate treatment, Syn and PSD-95 expression weresignificantly increased (FIG. 3C). The expression of two presynapticproteins critical for the functional status of presynaptic terminals,RIM1 and Rab3a, were also checked. Similar to Syn and PSD-95, RIM1 andRab3a expression were significantly increased following threonatetreatment (Syn: F_(3,37)=6.849, p=0.0009, n=10-11; PSD-95:F_(3,36)=3.350, p=0.0295, n=10; Rab3a: F_(3,52)=10.54, p<0.0001, n=14;RIM1: F_(3,24)=5.946, p=0.0035, n=7; FIG. 3C).

NR2B-containing NMDAR plays an important role in controlling synapticplasticity. Upregulation of its expression is sufficient to enhancelearning and memory ability. Elevation of extracellular [Mg²⁺] canselectively increase synaptic NR2B-containing NMDAR. Thus, thepossibility that threonate treatment can also affect NR2B was tested.Threonate treatment significantly upregulated NR2B-containing NMDAR inhippocampal neurons (F_(3,17)=7.493, p=0.0021; FIG. 3D).

Collectively, threonate-treated neurons exhibited higher structuralsynaptic density, and higher expression of proteins critical forsynaptic plasticity.

FIGS. 3 a-3 d Enhancement of synaptic density and upregulation ofNR2B-containing NMDAR by threonate. Hippocampal neuronal cultures weretreated with threonate for 2 days. (FIG. 3A) Representative fluorescentimages of glutamatergic terminal marker synaptophysin (Syn) and spinemarker PSD-95 of controls (n=5) and threonate-treated hippocampalneurons (n=4-6) at varying threonate concentrations (0-150 μM). Scalebar represents 2 m. (FIG. 3B) Quantification of Syn andPSD-95-immunostained puncta. One-way ANOVA compared density andcolocalization of Syn and PSD-95 in threonate-treated neurons tocontrols; *p<0.05; **p<0.01. (FIG. 3C) Western blot and quantitativeanalysis of presynaptic proteins RIM1, Rab3a and Syn and postsynapticprotein PSD-95 expression in hippocampal neuronal cultures treated withthreonate (0-150 μM). β-tubulin was used as a loading control. Data isrepresented as fold change relative to control (0 μM threonate). One-wayANOVA and Bonferroni's post hoc test; *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001; nmeans number of separate cultures. (FIG. 3D) Same as (FIG. 3C), exceptwestern blot is for expression of NR2B-containing NMDAR. β-actin wasused as a loading control. One-way ANOVA and Bonferroni's post hoc test;*p<0.05; **p<0.01.

Example 5: Threonate Enhances Mitochondrial Membrane Potential andIncreases Functional Presynaptic Terminal Density

The effects of threonate on presynaptic terminal function wasinvestigated. If threonate can elevate [Mg²⁺]_(i), it might improve thefunctional status of mitochondria and increase functional terminaldensity.

To assess mitochondrial function, their membrane potential (ΔΨ_(m)), animportant parameter for quantification of mitochondria function, wastested. The ratio of J-aggregate to J-monomer form of JC-1 was used toestimate ΔΨ_(m) (see methods). Addition of threonate for 2 dayssignificantly increased ΔΨ_(m) in hippocampal neurons by 49.6% (Unpairedt test, p<0.01; FIGS. 4A, 4B).

Next, the effects of threonate on functional synapse density wasinvestigated. FM dye was used to evaluate the terminals' ability toundergo activity dependent vesicular turnover. Vesicular endocytosistriggered by stimulation results in FM dye uptake. Terminals labeled byFM as a result of physiological pattern of stimulus are defined asfunctional (for detailed experimental protocol see Zhou (2015). Asimilar pattern of change in functional terminal density as withintracellular [Mg²⁺] in threonate-treated neurons was observed (FIG.2B). The number of functional terminals was significantly higher at 0.8and 1.2 mM than 0.6 mM extracellular [Mg²⁺] (Unpaired t test, p<0.01;FIG. 4A, B), and increased in threonate-treated neurons in adose-dependent manner under various (0.6, 0.8, or 1.2 mM) conditions(0.6 Mg: F_(3,21)=15.15, p<0.0001; 0.8 Mg: F_(3,16)=8.946, p=0.001; 1.2Mg: F_(3,16)=3.088, p=0.057; FIGS. 4C, 4D).

To test whether the increase of functional terminal density by threonatewas mediated by elevation of intracellular [Mg²⁺], the effects ofthreonate at 0.1 mM extracellular [Mg²⁺], a condition in which threonatefailed to increase intracellular [Mg²⁺], was investigated (FIG. 2F).Threonate treatment (150 μM) for 4 hr induced a significant increase offunctional terminal density (by 23%, FIGS. 4Eb, 4F). Reducingextracellular [Mg²⁺] to 0.1 mM for 4 hr did not reduce functionalterminal density (FIGS. 4Ec, 4F) relative to control extracellular[Mg²⁺] (FIGS. 4Ea, 4F). However, this condition prevented threonate fromincreasing functional terminal density (FIGS. 4Ed, 4F). These resultsindicate that elevation of intracellular [Mg²⁺] may be required forthreonate-induced increase of functional terminal density; although, thepossibility that threonate promotes functional synapse densityindependently of Mg²⁺ cannot be ruled out.

FIGS. 4A-4F. Threonate enhances mitochondrial membrane potential andincreases functional presynaptic terminal density. (FIG. 4A)Representative fluorescent images of hippocampal neuronal cultures dyedwith5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethyl-benzimidazol-carbocyanineiodide (JC-1) to determine mitochondrial transmembrane potential(ΔΨ_(m)) following treatment with threonate (150 μM) for 2 days. ΔΨ_(m)was measured by ratio of JC-1 aggregate and monomer. (FIG. 4B) Histogramof average JC-1 aggregate/monomer ratio (Control, 0.6Mg, n=8; Threonate,n=5). Unpaired t test compared ΔΨ_(m) in threonate-treated neurons tocontrols; **p<0.01. (FIG. 4C) Mature hippocampal neuronal cultures(14-21 DIV) with varying concentrations of [Mg²⁺]_(o) (0.6, 0.8, 1.2 mM)were treated with threonate (0-150 μM) for 2 days. Representativefluorescent FM 1-43 (upper row) and DIC (lower row) images following 6*5AP stimulation protocol of control (0 μM threonate) andthreonate-treated (50-150 M threonate) neurons are shown. (FIG. 4D)Functional terminal density was calculated from images represented inFIG. 4C (n=5-7). Unpaired t test compared functional terminal density in0.6 Mg (n=7), 0.8 Mg (n=5), and 1.2 Mg (n=5) (++p<0.01). In the same[Mg²⁺]_(o) group (0.6, 0.8 or 1.2 mM), threonate-treated neurons (50-150M; n=5-7) were compared to controls. One-way ANOVA and Bonferroni's posthoc test, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001. (FIG. 4E) Representative fluorescent FM1-43 (upper row) and DIC (lower row) images of hippocampal neuronalcultures following treatment with threonate (150 μM, 4 hr) or control (0μM threonate) in 0.6 mM [Mg²⁺]_(o) (control) or in 0.1 mM [Mg²⁺]. (FIG.4F) Histogram of functional terminal density calculated from imagesrepresented in E (n=6). Paired t test compared changes of functionalterminal density in 0.6 mM [Mg²⁺]_(o) (control) to threonate treatmentin control [Mg²⁺]_(o) or 0.1 mM [Mg²⁺]_(o) with or without threonatetreatment; ***p<0.001.

Example 6: Comparison of Effects of Various Anions on IntracellularMagnesium and Functional Synaptic Density

The above data suggested that threonate has a direct effect in promotingan increase of intracellular [Mg²⁺]. For elevation of hippocampal neuronMg²⁺, it was of interest to see whether other major anions have asimilar effect. By comparing the molecular structure of compounds thathave or do not have this effect, one might be able to ascertain themembrane channel/carrier involved in elevation of intracellular [Mg²⁺].

For comparison, malate, citrate, and gluconate were selected for theirstructural similarity to threonate as sugar acids (FIG. 8 ), andglycinate because it is purported to promote cation absorption inperiphery. These molecules were tested under 0.6 mM extracellular [Mg²⁺]conditions, and threonate was the only one able to increaseintracellular [Mg²⁺] (F_(5,19)=3.455, p=0.0218; FIGS. 5A, 5B).

Next, these molecules were compared in their ability to increasefunctional synapse density in hippocampal neurons. After 2 days oftreatment, only threonate was able to significantly increase functionalterminal density (F_(5,25)=10.99, p<0.0001; FIGS. 5C, 5D). Citrate,gluconate, malate, and glycinate treatments had no significant effects.The fact that only threonate resulted in a change in intracellular[Mg²⁺] and functional terminal density gave insight into the underlyingmechanistic pathway by which threonate enhances synaptic changes.

FIGS. 5A-5D. Comparison of effects of various anions on [Mg²⁺]_(i) andfunctional synaptic density. (FIG. 5A) Representative MgGreen (upperrows) and DIC (lower rows) fluorescent images of individual branchesafter 2 day treatment with threonate or threonate analogs under 0.6 mM[Mg²⁺]_(o) (control). (FIG. 5B) Histogram of average [Mg²⁺]_(i)calculated from the MgGreen and DIC images represented in A. Allcompound-treated neurons (n=4) were compared to controls (n=5). One-wayANOVA and Bonferroni's post hoc test; *p<0.05. (FIG. 5C) Representativefluorescent FM 1-43 (upper rows) and DIC (lower rows) images ofhippocampal neuronal cultures following treatment with threonate orthreonate analogs for 2 days in 0.6 mM [Mg²⁺](control). (FIG. 5D)Histogram of functional terminal density calculated from imagesrepresented in C (n=5-6). All compound-treated neurons were compared tocontrols. One-way ANOVA and Bonferroni's post hoc test; **p<0.01.

Example 7: Glucose Transporters (GLUTs) are Necessary forThreonate-Induced Changes and Increase of Functional Synapse Density

Since only threonate was effective at increasing intracellular [Mg²⁺]and functional synaptic density, its transport mechanisms was studied.There are no known transporters for threonate, but because threonate isa derivative of ascorbic acid/dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), it was testedwhether threonate acted through ascorbic acid and/or DHA transporters.Ascorbic acid is transported by glucose transporters (GLUTs) andsodium-dependent vitamin C transporter 2 (SVCT2), which are highlyexpressed in the CNS.

To specifically target GLUTs and SVCT2, cytochalasin B (CB) andphloretin were utilized, because of their ability to inhibit GLUTs andSVCT2, respectively. While short term incubation (4 hr) of hippocampalneuronal cultures with threonate increased intracellular [Mg²⁺], (by29.6%, Unpaired t test, p<0.0001), this threonate-mediated increase wasprevented by the addition of CB. CB alone did not alter intracellular[Mg²⁺] relative to control (FIGS. 6A, 6B). In contrast, treatment withphloretin significantly decreased intracellular [Mg²⁺] relative toplacebo (by 10.4%; Unpaired t test, p<0.01), but this reduction wasovercome by the addition of threonate. Even in the presence ofphloretin, threonate treatment resulted in a significant increase ofintracellular [Mg²⁺] (23.5%, Unpaired t test, p<0.0001) (FIGS. 6A, 6B).These results suggest an involvement of GLUTs, but not SVCT2, in themodulation of intracellular [Mg²⁺] by threonate which can lead toaugmentation of functional terminal density.

It was the asked whether blocking GLUTs or SVCT2 by CB or phloretinwould affect the ability of threonate to elevate functional terminaldensity of hippocampal neurons. CB treatment alone did not affect thedensity of functional terminals relative to control; however, in thepresence of CB, threonate treatment was unable to elevate functionalterminal density (FIGS. 6C, 6D), similar to the effects of CB onthreonate-mediated increase of intracellular [Mg²⁺]. In line with theeffect of phloretin on intracellular [Mg²⁺], addition of phloretinsignificantly decreased functional terminal density (by 10.5%; Unpairedt test, p<0.05) in hippocampal cultures, and was unable to blockthreonate-mediated increase of functional terminal density relative tocontrol (20.4%; Unpaired t test, p<0.001) (FIGS. 6C, 6D). Altogether, itwas concluded that GLUTs mediate threonate-induced increases in neuronalintracellular [Mg²⁺] and functional synapse density.

FIGS. 6A-6E. Glucose transporters (GLUTs) mediate threonate-inducedsynaptic changes and increase of functional synapse density. Hippocampalcultures were incubated with threonate/cytochalasin B (CB; GLUTsinhibitor)/Phloretin (SVCT2 inhibitor) for 4 hr. (FIG. 6A)Representative MgGreen (left columns) and DIC (right columns)fluorescent images of individual branches following 4 hr treatment withthreonate (150 mM) or control (0 mM threonate) with or without CB orPhloretin. (FIG. 6B) [Mg²⁺]_(i) was calculated as normalized F_((a.u))by dividing each branch's MgGreen F_((a.u)) by its mean diameter(measured from DIC images), from images represented in A. The resultingaverages for each condition (n=4-17) are displayed. Unpaired t testcompared [Mg²⁺]_(i) in 0.6 mM [Mg²⁺]_(o) (control) to threonatetreatment in control [Mg²⁺]_(o) or CB/Phloretin with or withoutthreonate treatment; *p<0.05; ***p<0.001. (FIG. 6C) Representativefluorescent FM 1-43 (upper rows) and DIC (lower rows) images ofhippocampal neuronal cultures following 6*5 AP protocol after threonate(150 μM) or control (0 μM threonate) treatment with CB or Phloretin.(FIG. 6D) Histogram of functional terminal density calculated fromimages represented in C (n=6-15). Unpaired t test compared effect ofthreonate, CB or Phloretin on functional terminal density to controls,and effect of threonate on functional terminal density in the presenceof CB or Phloretin, respectively; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001. (FIG. 6E)Proposed mechanistic pathway for threonate-induced increase offunctional synaptic density

Example 8: Threonate Upregulated Expression Level of Syn and PSD-95 inHuman Neural Stem Cell-Derived Neurons

To help understand the potential ramifications of the present study inhuman, the effects of threonate on synaptic changes in human stemcell-derived neurons were examined. In a separate study, it was foundthat plasma threonate concentrations were similar between human and rat;but human CSF threonate of concentrations, of 100-300 μM, were muchhigher than those in rat (internal observation). Threonate function mayvary between rodent and human due to species differences in ascorbatesynthesis and plasma and CSF concentrations. To test this, humanneuronal cultures were derived from human neural stem cells (hNSC).Unfortunately, because human neurons cannot be grown on glasscoverslips, a requirement for quantitative imaging analysis, we wereunable to carry out analysis of functional terminal density or tomonitor changes in [Mg²⁺]_(i). The only option to evaluate effects ofthreonate on human neurons was to determine the expression of pre- andpostsynaptic proteins, which is supposed to be proportional to thenumber of synapses.

FIG. 7A shows the experimental protocol used for deriving neurons fromhNSC. In this cell line, structural and functional synapses are presentat day 45 following induction of differentiation. Glutamatergic synapsesat day 80 was observed, via fluorescent colocalization of Syn(presynaptic) and PSD-95 (postsynaptic) (FIGS. 7Ac-7Af), and treated thehuman neurons with threonate at day 90. Similar to our findings incultured rat hippocampal neurons, threonate treatment significantlyincreased Syn and PSD-95 expression in a dose-dependent manner (Syn,F_(4,67)=4.499, p=0.0028; PSD-95, F_(4,44)=4.221, p=0.0056; FIGS. 7B,7C). Interestingly, compared to the rat dose response curve, in humanneurons, the threonate dose response curve was shifted toward a higherconcentration, such that even at 400 μM, a concentration higher thanhuman physiological concentration, the effects of threonate continued toincrease. This shift seems to be matched with the higher concentrationof threonate in human CSF.

FIGS. 7Aa-7C. Elevating threonate increased expression of Syn and PSD-95in Human Neurons. (FIG. 7Aa) Schematic of protocol for differentiationof human neural stem cells (hNSC) into neurons and subsequent threonatetreatment. (FIG. 7Ab) Neurospheres at optimal size for passaging afterproliferation. (FIGS. 7Ac-7Af) Confocal microscopy images ofimmune-fluorescence staining for hNSC-derived neurons. (FIG. 7Ac) Imagesof dendrites (MAP2) showing localization of foci of the excitatorysynapse. Physical synapses (arrows in f) were identified byjuxtaposition of pre- and postsynaptic proteins, either Syn (FIG. 7Ad)or PSD-95 (FIG. 7Ae). (FIGS. 7B-7C) Representative western blot (FIG.7B) and quantified histogram (FIG. 7C) of Syn (n=9-18) and PSD-95(n=6-13) in control and threonate treated hNSC-derived neurons.β-tubulin was used as a loading control. Data are presented as foldchange relative to control. One-way ANOVA and Bonferroni's post hoctest; *p<0.05; **p<0.01.

All publications and patent applications cited in this specification areherein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication orpatent application were specifically and individually indicated to beincorporated by reference. The citation of any publication is for itsdisclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as anadmission that the present invention is not entitled to antedate suchpublication by virtue of prior invention.

1. A method of increasing brain synaptic density of an individual,comprising: administering to an individual a first dosage formcomprising an effective amount of a threonate-containing compound, or aprecursor thereof, to increase synaptic density in one or more regionsof the brain of the individual, wherein the threonate-containingcompound, or precursor thereof, is not a magnesium salt.
 2. The methodof claim 1, wherein the threonate-containing compound, or precursorthereof, is a monovalent, divalent or trivalent cation salt, orprecursor thereof, of threonate.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein themonovalent, divalent or trivalent cation is selected from the groupconsisting of: H⁺, Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, NH₄₊, C₁-C₈ monoalkylammonium,C₂-C₈ dialkylammonium, C₃-C₈ trialkylammonium, and Fe^(3+/2+).
 4. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the administering comprises administering thefirst dosage form orally, intravenously, or transcutaneously.
 5. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises co-administeringa second dosage form comprising magnesium with the first dosage form. 6.The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more regions of the braincomprise the hippocampus, cortex, amygdala, and/or the basal ganglion.7. The method of claim 1, wherein the first dosage form comprises one ormore additional agents selected from the group consisting of apharmacological agent, a flavoring agent, a coloring agent, a sweeteningagent, a filling agent, a binding agent, a lubricating agent, anexcipient, and a preservative.
 8. A method of increasing intracellularmagnesium concentration, comprising: providing to a medium comprising acell, a threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, toincrease the concentration of threonate in the medium, wherein theincreased concentration of threonate is sufficient to increase theconcentration of magnesium in the cell compared to the concentration ofmagnesium in the cell before the providing, wherein thethreonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, is not a magnesiumsalt.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the cell is in vitro, andwherein the providing comprises contacting the cell with a compositioncomprising the threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof.10. The method of claim 8, wherein the cell is in vivo, and wherein theproviding comprises administering to an individual, a compositioncomprising the threonate-containing compound, or a precursor thereof, inan amount sufficient to increase the concentration of threonate in anextracellular medium of a cell in the individual.
 11. The method ofclaim 8, wherein the concentration of extracellular magnesium in themedium is in the range of 0.3 mM to 2.0 mM.
 12. The method of claim 8,wherein the concentration of magnesium in the cell is increased by 5% ormore.
 13. The method of claim 8, wherein the concentration of threonatein the medium is 75 μM or more.
 14. The method of claim 8, wherein thethreonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, is a monovalent,divalent or trivalent cation salt, or precursor thereof, of threonate.15. The method of claim 14, wherein the monovalent, divalent ortrivalent cation is selected from the group consisting of: H⁺, Li⁺, Na⁺,K⁺, Ca²⁺, NH₄ ⁺, C₁-C₈ monoalkylammonium, C₂-C₈ dialkylammonium, C₃-C₈trialkylammonium, and Fe^(3+/2+).
 16. The method of claim 8, wherein thecell is a cell that expresses a glucose transporter.
 17. The method ofclaim 8, wherein the cell is a neuronal cell.
 18. The method of claim17, wherein the neuronal cell is a central nervous system neuron. 19.The method of claim 18, wherein the neuron is a hippocampal or corticalneuron.
 20. A method of treating a neurological disorder in anindividual, comprising: administering to an individual in need oftreatment for a neurological disorder, a first dosage form comprising atherapeutically effective amount of a threonate-containing compound, ora precursor thereof, to ameliorate the neurological disorder, whereinthe threonate-containing compound, or precursor thereof, is not amagnesium salt. 21.-40. (canceled)